Roman Curse Tablets: Inscriptions and Literacy

Over 130 curse tablets have been discovered in the Sacred Roman Spring at Bath and this summer I had the opportunity to work with the museum’s collection team on the Curses Project and handle some of these fascinating objects.

Emily and Kate, placement students, handling the curse tablets.

What are curse tablets?

Curse tablets were a common feature throughout the Greco-Roman world and were an outlet for people to air their anxieties and grievances. They are small sheets of metal, often lead, which contain inscriptions appealing to a deity to cast influence or revenge on another individual. They were usually deposited at religious sites and were often buried or thrown into water so the unique natural hot spring at Bath would have been the ideal location for this ritual. Most of the legible curse tablets at Bath address the goddess Sulis Minerva and relate to the theft of an object.

Curse tablets on display at the Roman Baths museum.

What can they tell us about the Romans?

One aspect of Roman life which they can tell us about is literacy. It is generally believed that literacy levels throughout the Roman world were low and that it was mostly the upper class that were able to read and write. However, only two tablets at Bath were written by the same hand which suggests that there was a significantly higher proportion of the population that could write than what is usually assumed. Many of the curse tablets are thought to have been petitioned by the local native population and this is supported by the lack of Roman name formation within the inscriptions and the mention of low value objects.

 Who or what is Vilbia? 

"May he who carried off Vilbia from me become as liquid as water. May she who obscenely devoured her become dumb, whether Velvinna, Exsupereus, Verianus, Severinus, Augustalis, Comitianus, Catus, Minianus, Germanilla or Jovina."

One of my favourite curse tablets and the first to be discovered at Bath in 1880, is the tablet concerning the theft of Vilbia. The word ‘vilbia’ has proven to be quite problematic.

Some believe that the tablet refers to the theft of a woman, whilst others argue that the word refers to an object as ‘vilbia’ is similar to another British name for a small tool. Such debate which focuses on the language within this inscription shows how hard it is to interpret literary evidence and highlights the dangers in making assumptions about ability. Although it is one of the more legible tablets found at Bath, there are instances where the inscriber has gone over letters to possibly alter mistakes.

Theft of a Hooded Cloak

"To Minerva the goddess Sulis I have given the thief who has stolen my hooded cloak, whether slave or free, whether man or woman. He is not to buy back this gift unless with his own blood."

Another interesting tablet relates to the theft of a hooded cloak. It has been noted that features within the inscription such as spelling and the positioning of the letters is similar to how people with dyslexia write today. This observation has been made regarding other curse tablets and again suggests that the level of education and ability differed amongst those who participated in this particular ritual.

These small tablets offer us insight into an array of topics regarding Romano-British life and I encourage you all to come and see them for yourselves at the Roman Baths.

Kate

Placement student

What do Bath’s curse tablets tell us about the status of the people who wrote them?

The curse tablets are a group of over 130 pieces of lead, many of which are inscribed with prayers to the goddess Sulis Minerva The curse tablets were found during excavations of the Sacred Spring - now known as the King’s Bath - in 1979-80. They are an extremely significant part of The Roman Baths’ collection and were added to the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 2014 due to the unique perspective they give into the lives of ordinary people in Roman Britain.

A view over the Sacred Spring where the tablets were found.

Many of the inscribed tablets are prayers for justice, mentioning the theft of personal belongings and asking the goddess Sulis Minerva to punish the thief. I will be looking at three tablets from the collection to show what the tablets can tell us about the lives of the people who wrote them.

Who wrote the curse tablets?

Britannia was a province rather than a formal part of the Roman Empire; it had been conquered but did not follow all of the same administrative and legal procedures as the rest of the empire. This also meant that the people living there were not considered to be Roman citizens in the eyes of the law. The majority of people in the provinces held the status of  peregrinus, which meant that they were free people (i.e. not enslaved) but did not have the same legal rights as citizens.

Magistrates were busy and would only consider complaints brought by citizens, and would often favour those involving land ownership or business contracts. There was no equivalent of a police force to solve small crimes like theft.

Some peregrini in Britannia may not have been able to write or speak Latin fluently, further excluding them from legal processes as trials, contracts and paperwork were all in Latin. People may have known enough Latin to get by and conduct business, but the majority would not have received a full formal education like a wealthy Roman citizen.

But what are the clues in the tablets that show us that they were written by people of lower social status?

Stolen Possessions

In this tablet, a man called Docilianus says that his cloak has been stolen and asks the goddess to punish the thief with death and insomnia.

The objects reported as stolen to the goddess are of fairly low value. Cloaks, cooking pots, a ring and small amounts of money are some examples of objects mentioned on the tablets. In contrast, the punishments suggested for stealing these objects are very violent or unpleasant. Death, insomnia, blindness, and insanity are just a few examples.

This pattern of low value personal items and harsh punishments speaks to the anger of the people writing the tablets, suggesting that they may not have had the money to easily replace the stolen items.

Language and handwriting

The writing on this tablet uses the Latin alphabet but makes no sense, there are no recognisable Latin words. This has led researchers to believe it may be written in a local British language. 

The inscribed tablets are mostly written in Latin but some of them include unusual spelling or grammar. On many tablets, the writing is uneven, and the letters are not uniform in shape or size. These features indicate that the writers may not have been formally educated in Latin and did not write very often.

Two of the tablets (one is shown above) are thought to have been written in the writer’s native local British language but using the Latin alphabet. They have not been translated as local British languages were not usually written down at this time.

Illiteracy

The many scratches on this tablet may have been made by someone who was illiterate but still wanted to express their anger. The process of making the marks may have been cathartic.

Not all of the tablets are inscribed, some are completely blank while others (like the one above) have only repetitive scratches. These tablets have been interpreted as prayers offered to the goddess by people who were illiterate. They may have spoken their prayer aloud or thought it privately before throwing their tablet in the spring as part of a symbolic ritual. This could suggest that the intention behind depositing the tablet was more important that the actual act of writing the prayer.

Why did people write curse tablets?

As mentioned, the majority of people in Aquae Sulis at the time the tablets were written would have been peregrini, and did not have any way of requesting help from legal powers like magistrates. Instead, they turned to Sulis Minerva as a source of justice.

It is not clear how deeply people believed in the powers of the goddess to return their stolen possessions or punish thieves, but this was one of the only ways they had to seek justice. The presence of so many tablets demonstrate the frustration of lower status people in Roman Aquae Sulis and gives us an idea of how difficult it was to be excluded from the Roman legal system.

Emily

Placement student

Trade, Aquae Sulis, and the Roman Empire

When archaeologists first excavated Roman artefacts from Bath (Aquae Sulis), they discovered that the objects had travelled from across the Roman Empire through trade routes. Through curating a handling table in June, I had the opportunity to explore and share the mass international importation and exportation of goods during the Roman Empire.

Lydia running the handling table on Roman trade

How did the Romans transport liquid goods to Aquae Sulis?

We cannot talk about Roman trade without discussing amphorae. These were storage jars designed for transporting liquid products such as olive oil and wine on ships from the Mediterranean to other parts of the empire, including Aquae Sulis. The amphorae have two handles and a pointed base to make transporting liquid by sea easier. A sherd chosen for the handling table has a maker’s mark stamped onto the handle, illustrating how the maker of the amphora was advertising their products, exemplifying long-distanced trade networks through the advertising of the amphorae as they travelled widely within the Roman Empire.

Replica amphora (L) and handle of amphora with a maker's mark (R) 

What is the significance of Roman pottery found in Aquae Sulis?

Samian ware is an example of how Roman families indicated their wealth and status when entertaining visitors. The sherd below is decorated fine ware, aesthetically pleasing rather than designed for longevity. This table ware was made with red clay found in France (Gaul)  and was mass produced and transported across the empire.

Rim sherd of Samian ware

In contrast, black-burnished ware (BBW) was mass produced coarse ware made roughly with the intention of being sturdy and practical for use in everyday dining, cooking and storage. BBW was produced in Dorset and traded throughout Britain and the wider Roman Empire. This shows the growth of industries, including the exporting of goods from within Britain under the Romans. Pottery such as BBW and mined building material including Mendip lead have been uncovered as far away as Pompeii.

Sherd of black burnished ware 

Which truly Roman invention was transported to Aquae Sulis?

Mortaria were a type of Roman mixing bowl similar to our modern-day mortar and pestle, with stone and sandy grit deliberately added to the inside to help break down food and ground up spices. They were robust coarse ware used solely for cooking and not aesthetically designed. Mortaria were a uniquely Roman invention, transported throughout the empire with major production taking place in regions such as Belgium (Gallia Belgica).

Mortarium replica and sherd

Through learning about these everyday Roman objects it is possible to understand the importance of trade during the Roman Empire, including to Aquae Sulis. The Romans both imported goods to Roman Britain but also exported goods from Britain to the wider empire, showing the extent of mass production during the Roman Empire.

Visitors to the handling table

Lydia

Learning & participation placement student

Function or fashion? The practical and stylish accessories

Your impression of accessories may be beautiful and decorative, but have you ever thought about how they add beauty and style to our lives and serve a functional purpose at the same time? The Roman Bath houses a stunning collection of accessories spanning various historical periods. Reflecting on history, it becomes clear that accessories have long been a fusion of functionality and aesthetics.

Functional yet fashionable

In the Roman period, people already focused on developing aesthetically pleasing and useful ornaments. Brooches were particularly popular, and people used them to fasten their clothing. These brooches came in various types, including the penannular brooch with an open frame, the plate brooch prevalent during the first century, and the bow brooch commonly found in Roman archaeological sites. Don’t think these two thousand years ago ornaments are just simple copper alloys. On the contrary, they are often very exquisite, with changeable shapes and colourful enamel surfaces.

Left to right: Roman plate brooch, bow brooch, and replica of a penannular brooch

Expressions of belief

By the medieval period, in addition to delicate metalwork techniques like inlay, enamelling, and filigree becoming more common, their function began to reflect individuals' spiritual convictions or to show people's faith. For example, before the trend of wearing bells gained widespread popularity, it was mainly priests and pilgrims who adorned them, thereby symbolising their affiliation with the religion. Pilgrims collected various badges in different shapes to commemorate their pilgrimage and to express their religions. Similarly, influential figures have often awarded badges to their allies to commend their loyalty and support towards a certain belief or ideology. 

Left to right: Medieval dog badge and bell

Symbols of taste

After the 16th century, with the development of craftsmanship, the styles of functional ornaments became more varied and popular. For instance, in the Georgian period, wigs changed from functional preventing head lice to a symbol of style. Following the Industrial Revolution, the advent of mass production brought about an increase in diverse and accessible ornaments, which were no longer considered a luxury reserved for the upper class alone. Buttons, once the exclusive of the nobility during the medieval era, became a commodity that could be easily moulded and mass-produced. With the rise of the bourgeoisie, the popularity of shirts gave way to the fashion of cufflinks. Though seemingly unremarkable at first glance, these functional items embody a sense of style, and the variety of their forms and materials showcase the wearer's discerning taste.

Left to right: Georgian wig curler, moulded metallic button, and cuff links

Upon observing today's clothing, can you think of other decorative features that are functional but also fashionable? Maybe it is your stylish watch, glasses or even a zipper? Let us take a closer look at our clothing and appreciate the practical and astonishing accessories that have been thoughtfully designed.

Yushin

Placement student

Secrets of Roman Building Materials

Have you ever wondered, in a world dominated by concrete and synthetic materials, what the Romans used over two thousand years ago to produce enduring buildings, all without the aid of modern technology? 

Crafting from Nature 

Roman Britain had a variety of small workshops in every town, with the majority of the goods being produced there to satisfy regional demands. The Romans used natural resources and transformed them into purpose-fit building materials. From the rock and clay in the ground, timbers in the forest, to sand on the seashore, they selected materials wisely. 

Experienced craftsmen then made the raw materials into durable building components. For instance, tufa, which is a porous sedimentary rock created in mineral springs. Its sponge-like texture, which was both light and robust, made it an ideal material for creating vaulting structures. Due to the tufa's special characteristics, craftsmen used it to create wedge-shaped voussoirs that, when placed next to each other, supported beautiful vaults or arches.

Tufa from the Great Bath, Roman Baths 

Functional and Aesthetic 

The Romans were more than just engineers; they were artists who celebrated both beauty and function. The colorful and well-designed mosaics that adorned their rooms were a clear sign of this mix. 

Mosaics have a long and interesting past. They started in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC and spread to places like Ancient Greece and Rome before being used all over the world. In the Roman Baths, mosaic art is a burst of color. The secret? The tesserae made from different stones including hematite, pyrite, yellow iron oxide, and local Bath Stone. Bath Stone, which is also called freestone, got its name because it is soft and easy to cut in any direction. Since Roman and Medieval times, it's been a go-to for building across southern England. From churches to homes, its honey-colored beauty remains. Even today, Bath's Georgian buildings shine, thanks to this ancient material. 

Bath Stone (photo credit: The Open University Geological Society) 

Sea Horse Mosaic, Roman Baths 

Materials from Far and Wide 

 As the Roman Empire expanded, a wide variety of building materials flowed in from diverse lands, bringing abundant supplies. A good example is the Roman Baths, which made use of both native materials and imported ones. 

Due to a scarcity of natural marble in England, this expensive stone was imported from Spain or Southern Italy, giving luxury to the construction. Purbeck marble stepped in as a low-cost replacement. It has a polished shine while not being real marble. This fossiliferous limestone from Dorset, England, sometime contains fossils of ancient freshwater organisms. This is a Labrum fragment made of Purbeck marble found at the Roman Baths to hold water, which was used to cleanse before entering the bath or to cool down in the Caldarium (hot bathroom). 

Labrum fragment made of Purbeck marble 

Xingyue Yang Placement Student

古罗马建筑的秘密

 

生活在一个被钢筋水泥和复合材料包围的世界，你是否想过，两千多年前，没有任何现代科技的罗马人使用什么材料去建造房屋呢？

取自自然

罗马不列颠的每一个小镇都有不同的小作坊，生产不同种类的产品以满足本地需求。罗马人利用自然资源，并将其改造加工成不同部件的建筑材料。地下的岩石与粘土，森林中的树木，海边的沙子，都是他们充满智慧的选择。

在完成选择材料后，经验丰富的工匠将原材料加工成坚固耐用的建筑构件。比如说，Tufa，这是一种多孔的沉积岩，形成于矿物质泉水之中。Tufa如同海绵般的结构赋予了它兼顾轻巧和坚固的特点，使之成为修建拱顶的理想材料。由于这种特性，工匠们将Tufa制成楔状穹顶部件，当一个个部件紧密相连就构成了美观的圆形拱顶或者拱门。

在罗马巴斯浴场发现的 Tufa  

实用与美观

罗马人不仅仅是建筑工程师，更是兼顾美观与实用性的艺术家。汇聚设计巧思的五颜六色的马赛克便是最好的例子，它常用于室内装饰。

马赛克历史悠久，起源于公元前三世纪的美索不达米亚，然后传播到古希腊和古罗马，最终全世界都能发现它们的身影。在罗马巴斯浴场，马赛克迸发出绚烂的艺术之光。五颜六色的马赛克由不同石料制成的 tesserae 组成，包括赤铁矿、黄铁矿、黄色氧化铁和当地的Bath Stone。Bath Stone，又称 "freestone"，因其质地柔软、易于从任何方向进行切割而得名。从罗马时期和中世纪起，在英格兰南部地区，Bath Stone 便成为常见的建筑材料。无论是神圣的教堂，还是日常的民居，都可以找到Bath Stone的如同蜂蜜般的黄色外观。时至今日，巴斯城中的乔治亚风格建筑依然熠熠生辉，这要归功于这种历史悠久的材料。

Bath Stone (图片来源: The Open University Geological Society)

罗马巴斯浴场中的海马装饰马赛克

 

来源丰富的原料

随着罗马帝国的扩张，建筑材料的原产地更加多样，带来了丰富且充足的供给。罗马巴斯浴场就是一个好的例子，同时使用了本地和进口的材料。

在英格兰本土，天然大理石十分稀少，这种昂贵的石材往往从今天西班牙或者意大利南部进口，属于极其奢侈的建筑材料。Purbeck marble 是天然大理石的平价替代品。这种石材虽然不是真正的大理石，但打磨后也有抛光的质感。这种产自英格兰 Dorset 的石灰岩化石，有时含有古代淡水生物的化石。下图是在罗马巴斯浴场发现的由 Purbeck marble 制成的 Labrum 的文物遗存，用于装盛清水，在进入浴场前用来清洁，或在 Caldarium（热浴室）中用来降温。

由 Purbeck marble 制成的 Labrum

杨星月

实习学生

By Jove: It’s the Roman Gods!

How much do you know about the Roman religion? The Romans worshipped many gods, and they were part of their lives every single day. It seems that the Roman gods are everywhere and on everything at times. Coins, pottery, figurines, and more constantly depict the gods in all of their glory. However, there are more to the gods than we realise.

Roman Religion handling table at the Roman Baths

Who are the major gods?

 The major gods are the most well-known and powerful gods. These include Juno, Apollo, and Vulcan, and objects from the collection can show us how multi-dimensional these gods were. For example, there are two different coins with Venus on them. One of them shows Venus standing with an apple, which is one of her common symbols that represents love. The other coin shows Venus Victory, depicted in armour and holding a sceptre and a helmet. Here, we see Venus as a warrior instead of her as a goddess of love. It is helpful to see the gods as complex beings who represent more than one idea.

Venus with an apple (l)  and Venus Victory (r)

Which gods were worshipped at the Roman Baths?

Sulis Minerva is the main goddess worshipped at the Roman Baths, but she is not the only one. Others worshipped here include Diana, Jupiter, Mercury, and Mars. Jupiter is on an altar in the Temple Courtyard, and we can also see him on coins and pottery. On a coin, Jupiter is seated holding Winged Victory and, on a piece of pottery, his arm is flexed to throw his thunderbolt. Even though this site is dedicated to Sulis Minerva, it does not mean that we cannot see other gods represented at this same location.

Jupiter holding Winged Victory (l) and Jupiter’s hand on thunderbolt from the altar in the Temple Courtyard (r)

Who are the minor gods?

The minor gods are not as well known by the general public and are personifications of virtues that the Romans promoted and tried to follow. One coin that shows this depicts Libertas, goddess of liberty. On the reverse of the coin, we see Libertas holding a soft pileus (a hat that freed slaves wore) and a sceptre. The pileus on the coin symbolises freedom for freed slaves which was a common virtue to put on a coin. Libertas is one of many smaller gods who represent Roman virtues.

Libertas holding pileus and sceptre

Take a look at your money today! Do you see symbols or themes represented on your coins?

 

Samantha Kestler

Collections Placement (MA Museum Studies)

Heads or Tales: Septimius Severus

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Septimius Severus’ reign.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Born in Leptis Magna, modern day Libya, Septimius Severus was the first African-born Roman emperor. His predecessor, Pertinax, was murdered by the Praetorian Guard. Following his proclamation as emperor, Severus declared himself as the avenger of Pertinax and marched on Rome. During his reign, Severus debased the Roman currency by decreasing the silver purity of the denarius. This was the largest act of debasement since Nero and compromised the long-term strength of the economy. His reign was also characterised by military campaigns in both Parthia and Britain.

Severus’ British campaign began in 208 CE and was sparked by an increase of raids and attacks on Roman Britain by the Caledonians, largely due to Hadrian’s Wall being unmanned. During the campaign, he quickly reached the Antonine Wall but was not able to fully subjugate Caledonia. Eventually, his campaign was cut short when he fell ill and he withdrew to Eboracum, modern day York, where he died. Following his death, the Romans never campaigned into Caledonia again, and the Roman frontier was permanently withdrawn to Hadrian’s wall.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, obverse 

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Septimius Severus facing right, with a wreath of laurels on his head known as a laureate crown.

Inscription: 

Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus Imperator III

This is his regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, reverse

Reverse:

The back of the coin depicts Jupiter, seated and facing left, holding a sceptre in one hand and a small Victory in the other one. Severus presents his victories, such as those in Parthia, as having been divinely ordained by Jupiter. 

Inscription:

Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate II, Consul III, Pater Patriae.

Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is followed by the number two, which indicates which term as Tribune the emperor was serving. Consul was the highest office under the Republic; during the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Severus’ third time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”.

Thanks for reading our final blog in this series, we hope you’ve enjoyed it and have been able to make #headsortales of some of them!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant

Heads or Tales: Hadrian

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Hadrian’s reign.

As of Hadrian, obverse (l) and reverse (r)
 

At the beginning of Hadrian’s reign, there was rebellion and unrest in Roman Britain. In 122 CE, construction for a defensive wall began, known as Hadrian’s Wall. It ran across the width of the island from Tyne and Wear in the east to Cumbria in the west. This ended the previous policy of imperial expansion, as Hadrian chose to focus on defending existing borders such as in Britain instead.

As of Hadrian, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin shows Hadrian, facing right with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown. He has a beard and was the first emperor since Nero to be shown with one.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus,

This was his regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter.

As of Hadrian, reverse

Reverse:

The back of the coin depicts Fortuna Redux, a form of the goddess Fortuna, holding a rudder and cornucopia. The cornucopia represents abundance, and Fortune helps to steer the course of events with the rudder. Fortuna Redux specifically oversaw a return from a long and perilous journey, as highlighted by the rudder.

Inscription:

Pontifex Maximus, Tribunica Potestate, Consul III, S.C., Fortuna Redux.

Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is often followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but that is not present on this coin. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Hadrian’s third time as consul. S.C. means Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issued under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Heads or Tales: Trajan

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Trajan’s reign.

Denarius of Trajan, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

During Trajan’s reign the Roman Empire was at its territorial height, and this period is remembered for the Empire’s extensive territorial expansion. His earliest conquests were the wars against Dacia, modern day Romania and its neighbouring countries. The first war (101-102 CE) resulted in Dacia becoming a client kingdom. The second war (105-106 CE) led to the destruction of the Dacian capital and the conquering of the region. Following the Dacian wars, Trajan then invaded the Parthian Empire to the east. He is also known for his extensive public building programmes, including Trajan’s Forum, Trajan’s Market, and Trajan’s Column, the latter of which depicts his victory in the Dacian Wars. There is very little known about Trajan’s attitude towards Britain as there is no reference to Britain in any contemporary written sources and he did not expand further into Britain.

Denarius of Trajan, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Trajan facing right, with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Optimus Augustus Germanicus Dacicus.

His regnal name was Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus, and this was used during his reign and thereafter. The term optimus, meaning “the best”, was bestowed upon Trajan by the Roman Senate due to his popularity among his peers. It appeared on coins from 105 CE onwards, so this coin dates to after that time. The title Germanicus was conferred upon him during Nerva’s reign, when he was governor of Upper Germany. He was awarded this on account of his rule of the volatile province. The title Dacicus is a victory title, reflecting Trajan’s conquest of Dacia.

Denarius of Trajan, reverse

Reverse:

On the back of the coin is Providentia, the personification of foresight. She stands, facing left, and is holding a staff, with her hand resting on a column. Her appearance is used by Trajan to publicise that he is aware of the needs of the empire and its people and is taking steps to meet them.

Inscription:

Providentia Parthicus Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate, Consul IV, Pater Patriae, SPQR.

Like with the titles Germanicus and Dacicus, Parthicus reflects Trajan’s Parthian campaign. Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is often followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but not on this coin. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Trajan’s fourth time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”. SPQR stands for the Senate and the Roman People and is a phrase commonly associated with Trajan and the Roman Empire. This emphasises that his authority comes from the Senate and the People, rather than his adoption by his predecessor Nerva.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant 

 

Heads or Tales: Nerva

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Nerva’s reign.

Dupondius of Nerva, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Following the assassination of Domitian in 96 CE, Nerva was proclaimed emperor by the Senate. His reign was welcomed by senators, who had previously been persecuted under Domitian’s rule. Nerva openly promised that no senators would be executed during his reign. He also ended trials for crimes of treason, released those imprisoned for treason, and granted amnesty to those who were exiled. When he died, he was the last emperor to be interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus.

Dupondius of Nerva, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Nerva facing right facing right and wearing a crown of spikes known as a radiate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Nerva Caesar Augustus Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate, Consul… Pater Patriae.

The first four names refer to Nerva’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest, the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. This is followed by “tribune of the people”, a role representing the common people in government. It is sometimes followed by a number to indicate which term as tribune the emperor was serving, but not here. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted. Usually, a number follows to indicate how many times the emperor had been consul and thus when the coin was minted but is illegible here. The final phrase translates to “father of his country”. 

Dupondius of Nerva, reverse

Reverse:

The back shows Libertas, the personification of liberty, standing and holding a pileus and a vertical sceptre in each hand. The pileus is a soft woven wool cap which was often used as a symbol of freedom. They were sometimes worn by newly freed enslaved people to reflect their newfound liberty, old men, and the sick. The sceptre is a sign of divinity and associated with Jupiter, and later served to demonstrate imperial power. The reference to the imperial ideal of liberty contrasts Nerva’s reign with that of his predecessor Domitian.

Inscription:

Libertas Publica S.C.

This translates to “public freedom”. S.C. stands for Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant