How can we tell what time period an artefact is from?

Archaeologists use the artefacts they dig up from the ground to learn more about the lives of people in the past. But did you know that there’s a technique called stratigraphy that archaeologists use to tell what period of history the artefacts came from? We used the artefacts from the Roman Baths Museum's collections to demonstrate how stratigraphy works. 

Stratigraphy handling table at the Roman Baths

Stratigraphy 

What is stratigraphy?

Stratigraphy refers to the study of stratas, or layers of the soil. Simply put, if an artefact is discovered in a layer further down in the soil, it is probably older than an artefact discovered higher up in the soil. If an artefact is found within the same layer as another artefact, it is generally considered to be from the same period.

Stratigraphy trays

 

Which of these objects were discovered deeper in the soil?

The artefacts in the tray on the left are from the prehistoric era, and would be found at a deeper level than the artefacts in the tray on the right, which are from the Victorian era. You can see an axe head, and an animal bone with marks of butchery in the prehistoric tray, but the artefacts in the Victorian tray, such as the key and decorated plate, are much more recognisable to the kind of objects we would use today!

Historical pottery 

Pottery from different time periods

The piece of Roman pottery is an example of mortarium, a type of kitchen ware used to grind up foods such as herbs, like a modern mortar and pestle. You can see the grit inside which helped the grinding process. Early Mediaeval pottery was often hand-made, with techniques such as stamping used for decoration, shown on our mediaeval pottery piece. As we can see by the Victorian pottery, Victorians used decorative tableware to show off their wealth. This era saw the introduction of transfer printed tableware, although this plate fragment is hand-painted. 

Think like an archaeologist? 

Can you guess where these pots were found in the soil?

It is very useful for archaeologists to analyse how the same type of artefact, such as pottery, appears in different soil layers, as then we can get a clearer idea of differences in methods, tools, and materials throughout history. Isn’t it interesting how artefact 2, the modern pottery, looks quite similar to artefact 3, the prehistoric pottery? Stratigraphy can show us how some objects can change so much throughout time, and how some objects seem to stay the same! 

 (Correct answers: A2, B1, C3) 

Ruby

Placement student

Function or fashion? The practical and stylish accessories

Your impression of accessories may be beautiful and decorative, but have you ever thought about how they add beauty and style to our lives and serve a functional purpose at the same time? The Roman Bath houses a stunning collection of accessories spanning various historical periods. Reflecting on history, it becomes clear that accessories have long been a fusion of functionality and aesthetics.

Functional yet fashionable

In the Roman period, people already focused on developing aesthetically pleasing and useful ornaments. Brooches were particularly popular, and people used them to fasten their clothing. These brooches came in various types, including the penannular brooch with an open frame, the plate brooch prevalent during the first century, and the bow brooch commonly found in Roman archaeological sites. Don’t think these two thousand years ago ornaments are just simple copper alloys. On the contrary, they are often very exquisite, with changeable shapes and colourful enamel surfaces.

Left to right: Roman plate brooch, bow brooch, and replica of a penannular brooch

Expressions of belief

By the medieval period, in addition to delicate metalwork techniques like inlay, enamelling, and filigree becoming more common, their function began to reflect individuals' spiritual convictions or to show people's faith. For example, before the trend of wearing bells gained widespread popularity, it was mainly priests and pilgrims who adorned them, thereby symbolising their affiliation with the religion. Pilgrims collected various badges in different shapes to commemorate their pilgrimage and to express their religions. Similarly, influential figures have often awarded badges to their allies to commend their loyalty and support towards a certain belief or ideology. 

Left to right: Medieval dog badge and bell

Symbols of taste

After the 16th century, with the development of craftsmanship, the styles of functional ornaments became more varied and popular. For instance, in the Georgian period, wigs changed from functional preventing head lice to a symbol of style. Following the Industrial Revolution, the advent of mass production brought about an increase in diverse and accessible ornaments, which were no longer considered a luxury reserved for the upper class alone. Buttons, once the exclusive of the nobility during the medieval era, became a commodity that could be easily moulded and mass-produced. With the rise of the bourgeoisie, the popularity of shirts gave way to the fashion of cufflinks. Though seemingly unremarkable at first glance, these functional items embody a sense of style, and the variety of their forms and materials showcase the wearer's discerning taste.

Left to right: Georgian wig curler, moulded metallic button, and cuff links

Upon observing today's clothing, can you think of other decorative features that are functional but also fashionable? Maybe it is your stylish watch, glasses or even a zipper? Let us take a closer look at our clothing and appreciate the practical and astonishing accessories that have been thoughtfully designed.

Yushin

Placement student

Secrets of Roman Building Materials

Have you ever wondered, in a world dominated by concrete and synthetic materials, what the Romans used over two thousand years ago to produce enduring buildings, all without the aid of modern technology? 

Crafting from Nature 

Roman Britain had a variety of small workshops in every town, with the majority of the goods being produced there to satisfy regional demands. The Romans used natural resources and transformed them into purpose-fit building materials. From the rock and clay in the ground, timbers in the forest, to sand on the seashore, they selected materials wisely. 

Experienced craftsmen then made the raw materials into durable building components. For instance, tufa, which is a porous sedimentary rock created in mineral springs. Its sponge-like texture, which was both light and robust, made it an ideal material for creating vaulting structures. Due to the tufa's special characteristics, craftsmen used it to create wedge-shaped voussoirs that, when placed next to each other, supported beautiful vaults or arches.

Tufa from the Great Bath, Roman Baths 

Functional and Aesthetic 

The Romans were more than just engineers; they were artists who celebrated both beauty and function. The colorful and well-designed mosaics that adorned their rooms were a clear sign of this mix. 

Mosaics have a long and interesting past. They started in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC and spread to places like Ancient Greece and Rome before being used all over the world. In the Roman Baths, mosaic art is a burst of color. The secret? The tesserae made from different stones including hematite, pyrite, yellow iron oxide, and local Bath Stone. Bath Stone, which is also called freestone, got its name because it is soft and easy to cut in any direction. Since Roman and Medieval times, it's been a go-to for building across southern England. From churches to homes, its honey-colored beauty remains. Even today, Bath's Georgian buildings shine, thanks to this ancient material. 

Bath Stone (photo credit: The Open University Geological Society) 

Sea Horse Mosaic, Roman Baths 

Materials from Far and Wide 

 As the Roman Empire expanded, a wide variety of building materials flowed in from diverse lands, bringing abundant supplies. A good example is the Roman Baths, which made use of both native materials and imported ones. 

Due to a scarcity of natural marble in England, this expensive stone was imported from Spain or Southern Italy, giving luxury to the construction. Purbeck marble stepped in as a low-cost replacement. It has a polished shine while not being real marble. This fossiliferous limestone from Dorset, England, sometime contains fossils of ancient freshwater organisms. This is a Labrum fragment made of Purbeck marble found at the Roman Baths to hold water, which was used to cleanse before entering the bath or to cool down in the Caldarium (hot bathroom). 

Labrum fragment made of Purbeck marble 

Xingyue Yang Placement Student

古罗马建筑的秘密

 

生活在一个被钢筋水泥和复合材料包围的世界，你是否想过，两千多年前，没有任何现代科技的罗马人使用什么材料去建造房屋呢？

取自自然

罗马不列颠的每一个小镇都有不同的小作坊，生产不同种类的产品以满足本地需求。罗马人利用自然资源，并将其改造加工成不同部件的建筑材料。地下的岩石与粘土，森林中的树木，海边的沙子，都是他们充满智慧的选择。

在完成选择材料后，经验丰富的工匠将原材料加工成坚固耐用的建筑构件。比如说，Tufa，这是一种多孔的沉积岩，形成于矿物质泉水之中。Tufa如同海绵般的结构赋予了它兼顾轻巧和坚固的特点，使之成为修建拱顶的理想材料。由于这种特性，工匠们将Tufa制成楔状穹顶部件，当一个个部件紧密相连就构成了美观的圆形拱顶或者拱门。

在罗马巴斯浴场发现的 Tufa  

实用与美观

罗马人不仅仅是建筑工程师，更是兼顾美观与实用性的艺术家。汇聚设计巧思的五颜六色的马赛克便是最好的例子，它常用于室内装饰。

马赛克历史悠久，起源于公元前三世纪的美索不达米亚，然后传播到古希腊和古罗马，最终全世界都能发现它们的身影。在罗马巴斯浴场，马赛克迸发出绚烂的艺术之光。五颜六色的马赛克由不同石料制成的 tesserae 组成，包括赤铁矿、黄铁矿、黄色氧化铁和当地的Bath Stone。Bath Stone，又称 "freestone"，因其质地柔软、易于从任何方向进行切割而得名。从罗马时期和中世纪起，在英格兰南部地区，Bath Stone 便成为常见的建筑材料。无论是神圣的教堂，还是日常的民居，都可以找到Bath Stone的如同蜂蜜般的黄色外观。时至今日，巴斯城中的乔治亚风格建筑依然熠熠生辉，这要归功于这种历史悠久的材料。

Bath Stone (图片来源: The Open University Geological Society)

罗马巴斯浴场中的海马装饰马赛克

 

来源丰富的原料

随着罗马帝国的扩张，建筑材料的原产地更加多样，带来了丰富且充足的供给。罗马巴斯浴场就是一个好的例子，同时使用了本地和进口的材料。

在英格兰本土，天然大理石十分稀少，这种昂贵的石材往往从今天西班牙或者意大利南部进口，属于极其奢侈的建筑材料。Purbeck marble 是天然大理石的平价替代品。这种石材虽然不是真正的大理石，但打磨后也有抛光的质感。这种产自英格兰 Dorset 的石灰岩化石，有时含有古代淡水生物的化石。下图是在罗马巴斯浴场发现的由 Purbeck marble 制成的 Labrum 的文物遗存，用于装盛清水，在进入浴场前用来清洁，或在 Caldarium（热浴室）中用来降温。

由 Purbeck marble 制成的 Labrum

杨星月

实习学生

By Jove: It’s the Roman Gods!

How much do you know about the Roman religion? The Romans worshipped many gods, and they were part of their lives every single day. It seems that the Roman gods are everywhere and on everything at times. Coins, pottery, figurines, and more constantly depict the gods in all of their glory. However, there are more to the gods than we realise.

Roman Religion handling table at the Roman Baths

Who are the major gods?

 The major gods are the most well-known and powerful gods. These include Juno, Apollo, and Vulcan, and objects from the collection can show us how multi-dimensional these gods were. For example, there are two different coins with Venus on them. One of them shows Venus standing with an apple, which is one of her common symbols that represents love. The other coin shows Venus Victory, depicted in armour and holding a sceptre and a helmet. Here, we see Venus as a warrior instead of her as a goddess of love. It is helpful to see the gods as complex beings who represent more than one idea.

Venus with an apple (l)  and Venus Victory (r)

Which gods were worshipped at the Roman Baths?

Sulis Minerva is the main goddess worshipped at the Roman Baths, but she is not the only one. Others worshipped here include Diana, Jupiter, Mercury, and Mars. Jupiter is on an altar in the Temple Courtyard, and we can also see him on coins and pottery. On a coin, Jupiter is seated holding Winged Victory and, on a piece of pottery, his arm is flexed to throw his thunderbolt. Even though this site is dedicated to Sulis Minerva, it does not mean that we cannot see other gods represented at this same location.

Jupiter holding Winged Victory (l) and Jupiter’s hand on thunderbolt from the altar in the Temple Courtyard (r)

Who are the minor gods?

The minor gods are not as well known by the general public and are personifications of virtues that the Romans promoted and tried to follow. One coin that shows this depicts Libertas, goddess of liberty. On the reverse of the coin, we see Libertas holding a soft pileus (a hat that freed slaves wore) and a sceptre. The pileus on the coin symbolises freedom for freed slaves which was a common virtue to put on a coin. Libertas is one of many smaller gods who represent Roman virtues.

Libertas holding pileus and sceptre

Take a look at your money today! Do you see symbols or themes represented on your coins?

 

Samantha Kestler

Collections Placement (MA Museum Studies)

Stone Age Toolbox

Prehistoric tools are fascinating! The technology to make them is so old, yet we can still recreate them today. 

‘Stone Age Toolbox’ handling table, August 2023

The oldest man-made object in the Roman Baths collection is a Palaeolithic hand axe made of chert (a type of rock). A hand axe is a hand-held stone tool used for digging, chopping, scraping, piercing, and hammering. These axes are the longest used tool in human history, used throughout the Palaeolithic period (1,000,000 to 12,000 years ago) and most likely into the Mesolithic period (12,000 to 6,000 years ago).

Replica of a Palaeolithic hand axe

This hand axe, found near Bath, dates from 500,000 – 250,000 years ago! It was made by Homo Heidelbergensis, a species of early human who no longer exists, and yet it still fits comfortably in the palm of your hand. This physical connection to early humans is what makes the Prehistoric period so interesting.

During the Neolithic period (6,000 to 4,200 years ago), handles were added to axe heads, as they start to be used to cut down trees to create fields. This was the start of crop farming, a new idea which spread from the continent.

Axe head with handle

Axes continued to be used to cut down trees for the rest of the Prehistoric period however the format of the handles changed drastically during the Bronze Age (4,600 to 2,700 years ago). This was to compensate for the new methods of construction of axes; they were being cast in bronze in two-part moulds, creating the distinctive ridge around the axe head.

Bronze Age socketed axe head

Flint was used to create tools during the Prehistoric period. Large pieces were used as axes and smaller pieces used to make tools. This was done in a process called flint knapping, where the hammerstone (a rock) is hit against a core (piece of flint) to create the desired shape. This is continued until a tool has been created that is comfortable to hold. To create the sharp cutting edge, the flint knapper chips away at the tool with smaller, softer items, such as bone, which is more precise than the first attempt.

Flintknapping, drawing by José-Manuel Benito Álvarez

Palaeolithic burins and flint blades were made from the flint chips created during flint knapping. Burins are small pieces of flint with sharpened edges, usually in the shape of a circle. They were used to create leather by scraping the skin, then to make clothing by piercing holes into the leather and sewing it together with grasses. Flint blades were used to cut soft materials such as food, animal skin, plants, or twigs.

Palaeolithic burin

During the Mesolithic and into the Neolithic period, microliths and arrowheads start to be used. Microliths are small flint shards, usually attached to a handle.

Mesolithic microliths

Prehistory is about so much more than just weapons and fighting. Most of the objects in the collection are tools for the creation of food or resources, for example arrowheads used for hunting animals.

Jen

Placement student

 

Edited by Eleanor, Collections Assistant

What Can We Learn From Animal Bones?

Animal bones found at archaeological excavations can provide valuable information about the past. They can tell us about butchery and eating habits, tool use, and the environment the bones were disposed of or buried in.

First, we must identify which animal the bones belong to. We can look at the overall size and robusticity of the bones, as well as the cranium (skull) and the mandible (jaw). The size, curvature, and profile of the mandible display distinct differences between animals. Sheep mandibles flare at the curve of the jaw, which differs from the more sloping profile of pig mandibles.

Pigs have one of the most distinctive teeth of domestic mammals. As omnivores, their teeth need to be able to both slice and grind their food, and so they display more pronounced canines and incisors compared to herbivores. Their teeth have flat shaped cusps ideal for their diet, this contrasts with the “W” shaped profile of sheep teeth, deer and cattle.

Sheep mandible (left), pig mandible (right)

Once the bone has been identified, we can examine the texture for signs of use by humans. Looking at the long bones for marks and scrapes can indicate intentional defleshing and butchery.

Differences in butchery methods and skill can lead to differences in cut marks, and it can sometimes be difficult to identify signs of intentional butchery. The clearest way to do so is by observing a V-shaped cross section. This V shape is characteristic of cutting with a lithic or metal knife, whereas a U-shaped mark indicates stone tools were used. 

Sheep tibia with cut marks (left), split cow radius (right)

Worked bone is also common, and indicates bone was also used to make tools, decorations and jewellery. Bone can be polished and incised with a decorative pattern.

This worked Roman sheep metapodia that was used as a handle for a blade or utensil

The colour and condition of the bones can also reveal information about the environment the remains were discarded or buried in, as well as actions of other animals.

When bones are discarded there is often still meat on the bone, and this can attract rodents which leave distinct parallel grooves and scrapes.  

A bright white bone indicates it was bleached by sunlight, whereas black and dark brown suggest exposure to bacteria, fungi and soil minerals. Green marks indicate contact with copper; this is a frequent occurrence in human remains due to grave goods. By noting these observations, we can construct a profile of the animal's environment.

Overall, there is much to be learned from animal bones in the archaeological context!

Lauren

Collections placement student

 

 

Spa Treatments in Bath

For over 2000 years, people have been drawn to the waters here in Bath. They have bathed, sought healing, worshipped, and socialised in the only natural hot springs in the country. There have been numerous spa sites in Bath since the Roman period and, in the 1800s, it was a thriving spa town. The current free display in the King’s Lounge focuses on the Victorian bathing establishment.

“If they can’t be cured by drinking and bathing here, they will never be cured anywhere” Dr Oliver, A Practical Dissertation on the Bath Waters, 1707

Map of Bath (1959) showing Victorian spa sites.

This consisted of three sites:

• the redeveloped Hot Bath, known as Old Royal Baths (1829) which included Bath’s first spa swimming bath, the Beau Street Swimming Bath
• the New Royal Baths and Physical Treatment Centre, which opened as a luxurious treatment centre in 1870
• the New Queen’s Baths, next to the King’s Bath, which showcased fashionable treatments from 1889.

The Stall Street entrance to the Roman Baths
with a sign for the King’s and Queens Baths.

These centres and their spa treatments remained popular through to the 20^th century.

With the Physical Treatment Centre, new and fashionable treatments were made available, inspired by spa towns on the continent. Much of the spa equipment was custom made, and included variants on the Needle Douche, the Plombières Douche, and a sulphur bath. The Vichy Needle Douche was named after the prestigious spa town in Vichy, France. A lifting mechanism was custom made for the Hot Bath, slings or chairs lifted patients in and out of the water.

Electricity was used in conjunction with mineral water,
including the Hydro-Electric Four-cell Bath, in which
patients’ limbs were placed in four separate tubs, allowing the
controlled current to pass in any direction.

The water was celebrated for its healing properties, some believed this to be due to the presence of radium, now known to be a toxic gas. This was seen in treatments such as Radium Inhalatorium, in which radium was inhaled through the nose or mouth, or, when used with mineral water, as a nasal or throat spray. Although the water was proudly advertised as radioactive, in reality radium is only present in minute quantities.

During World War One, thousands of wounded soldiers were sent to Bath to recover. They received treatments at the Mineral Water Hospital and the New Royal Baths were enlarged in 1915 to provide facilities specifically designed for them.

After the Second World War, the baths’ popularity began to decline. Leisure travel and spa therapy were no longer fashionable, and the city’s infrastructure had been damaged during the Bath Blitz. The New Queen’s Bath was demolished in 1970 and the Physical Treatment Centre closed in 1976, following the withdrawal of NHS funding established in 1948.

Temporary display in the King's Lounge.

The objects displayed in the King’s Lounge were removed prior to work on the new Thermae Spa which opened in 2003. They include a hook and handle from the lifting mechanism used to lower patients into the Hot Bath, a pressure gauge from a Vichy Douche, a thermometer which hung in the Hot Bath, and a pamphlet which details treatments and their prices in April 1923.

You can see the display for free by accessing the Stall Street entrance during opening hours between 10am-5pm.

Eleanor 

Collections Assistant 

Heads or Tales: Septimius Severus

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Septimius Severus’ reign.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Born in Leptis Magna, modern day Libya, Septimius Severus was the first African-born Roman emperor. His predecessor, Pertinax, was murdered by the Praetorian Guard. Following his proclamation as emperor, Severus declared himself as the avenger of Pertinax and marched on Rome. During his reign, Severus debased the Roman currency by decreasing the silver purity of the denarius. This was the largest act of debasement since Nero and compromised the long-term strength of the economy. His reign was also characterised by military campaigns in both Parthia and Britain.

Severus’ British campaign began in 208 CE and was sparked by an increase of raids and attacks on Roman Britain by the Caledonians, largely due to Hadrian’s Wall being unmanned. During the campaign, he quickly reached the Antonine Wall but was not able to fully subjugate Caledonia. Eventually, his campaign was cut short when he fell ill and he withdrew to Eboracum, modern day York, where he died. Following his death, the Romans never campaigned into Caledonia again, and the Roman frontier was permanently withdrawn to Hadrian’s wall.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, obverse 

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Septimius Severus facing right, with a wreath of laurels on his head known as a laureate crown.

Inscription: 

Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus Imperator III

This is his regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, reverse

Reverse:

The back of the coin depicts Jupiter, seated and facing left, holding a sceptre in one hand and a small Victory in the other one. Severus presents his victories, such as those in Parthia, as having been divinely ordained by Jupiter. 

Inscription:

Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate II, Consul III, Pater Patriae.

Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is followed by the number two, which indicates which term as Tribune the emperor was serving. Consul was the highest office under the Republic; during the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Severus’ third time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”.

Thanks for reading our final blog in this series, we hope you’ve enjoyed it and have been able to make #headsortales of some of them!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant

Heads or Tales: Hadrian

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Hadrian’s reign.

As of Hadrian, obverse (l) and reverse (r)
 

At the beginning of Hadrian’s reign, there was rebellion and unrest in Roman Britain. In 122 CE, construction for a defensive wall began, known as Hadrian’s Wall. It ran across the width of the island from Tyne and Wear in the east to Cumbria in the west. This ended the previous policy of imperial expansion, as Hadrian chose to focus on defending existing borders such as in Britain instead.

As of Hadrian, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin shows Hadrian, facing right with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown. He has a beard and was the first emperor since Nero to be shown with one.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus,

This was his regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter.

As of Hadrian, reverse

Reverse:

The back of the coin depicts Fortuna Redux, a form of the goddess Fortuna, holding a rudder and cornucopia. The cornucopia represents abundance, and Fortune helps to steer the course of events with the rudder. Fortuna Redux specifically oversaw a return from a long and perilous journey, as highlighted by the rudder.

Inscription:

Pontifex Maximus, Tribunica Potestate, Consul III, S.C., Fortuna Redux.

Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is often followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but that is not present on this coin. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Hadrian’s third time as consul. S.C. means Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issued under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Heads or Tales: Nerva

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Nerva’s reign.

Dupondius of Nerva, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Following the assassination of Domitian in 96 CE, Nerva was proclaimed emperor by the Senate. His reign was welcomed by senators, who had previously been persecuted under Domitian’s rule. Nerva openly promised that no senators would be executed during his reign. He also ended trials for crimes of treason, released those imprisoned for treason, and granted amnesty to those who were exiled. When he died, he was the last emperor to be interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus.

Dupondius of Nerva, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Nerva facing right facing right and wearing a crown of spikes known as a radiate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Nerva Caesar Augustus Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate, Consul… Pater Patriae.

The first four names refer to Nerva’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest, the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. This is followed by “tribune of the people”, a role representing the common people in government. It is sometimes followed by a number to indicate which term as tribune the emperor was serving, but not here. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted. Usually, a number follows to indicate how many times the emperor had been consul and thus when the coin was minted but is illegible here. The final phrase translates to “father of his country”. 

Dupondius of Nerva, reverse

Reverse:

The back shows Libertas, the personification of liberty, standing and holding a pileus and a vertical sceptre in each hand. The pileus is a soft woven wool cap which was often used as a symbol of freedom. They were sometimes worn by newly freed enslaved people to reflect their newfound liberty, old men, and the sick. The sceptre is a sign of divinity and associated with Jupiter, and later served to demonstrate imperial power. The reference to the imperial ideal of liberty contrasts Nerva’s reign with that of his predecessor Domitian.

Inscription:

Libertas Publica S.C.

This translates to “public freedom”. S.C. stands for Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant