Function or fashion? The practical and stylish accessories

Your impression of accessories may be beautiful and decorative, but have you ever thought about how they add beauty and style to our lives and serve a functional purpose at the same time? The Roman Bath houses a stunning collection of accessories spanning various historical periods. Reflecting on history, it becomes clear that accessories have long been a fusion of functionality and aesthetics.

Functional yet fashionable

In the Roman period, people already focused on developing aesthetically pleasing and useful ornaments. Brooches were particularly popular, and people used them to fasten their clothing. These brooches came in various types, including the penannular brooch with an open frame, the plate brooch prevalent during the first century, and the bow brooch commonly found in Roman archaeological sites. Don’t think these two thousand years ago ornaments are just simple copper alloys. On the contrary, they are often very exquisite, with changeable shapes and colourful enamel surfaces.

Left to right: Roman plate brooch, bow brooch, and replica of a penannular brooch

Expressions of belief

By the medieval period, in addition to delicate metalwork techniques like inlay, enamelling, and filigree becoming more common, their function began to reflect individuals' spiritual convictions or to show people's faith. For example, before the trend of wearing bells gained widespread popularity, it was mainly priests and pilgrims who adorned them, thereby symbolising their affiliation with the religion. Pilgrims collected various badges in different shapes to commemorate their pilgrimage and to express their religions. Similarly, influential figures have often awarded badges to their allies to commend their loyalty and support towards a certain belief or ideology. 

Left to right: Medieval dog badge and bell

Symbols of taste

After the 16th century, with the development of craftsmanship, the styles of functional ornaments became more varied and popular. For instance, in the Georgian period, wigs changed from functional preventing head lice to a symbol of style. Following the Industrial Revolution, the advent of mass production brought about an increase in diverse and accessible ornaments, which were no longer considered a luxury reserved for the upper class alone. Buttons, once the exclusive of the nobility during the medieval era, became a commodity that could be easily moulded and mass-produced. With the rise of the bourgeoisie, the popularity of shirts gave way to the fashion of cufflinks. Though seemingly unremarkable at first glance, these functional items embody a sense of style, and the variety of their forms and materials showcase the wearer's discerning taste.

Left to right: Georgian wig curler, moulded metallic button, and cuff links

Upon observing today's clothing, can you think of other decorative features that are functional but also fashionable? Maybe it is your stylish watch, glasses or even a zipper? Let us take a closer look at our clothing and appreciate the practical and astonishing accessories that have been thoughtfully designed.

Yushin

Placement student

A Story of Swords

Few objects from history summarise power and status better than the sword. Throughout the middle ages, swords would be expensive, reserved for the wealthiest members of society, and rare compared to how widely the media portrays them today. By the era we associate with the Anglo-Saxons and Vikings (the 9th to 11th centuries), the skill of sword-smithing had become a fine art, giving swords a near legendary reputation. This example is no exception.

The Viking sword from Bath

It was discovered in the 1980s, on its own, in a ditch outside Bath’s old city walls. It was allegedly still sharp upon discovery, a testament to the quality craftsmanship involved in making this weapon. The blade itself has a black patina which indicates an early method of protecting swords against corrosion, an issue anyone looking after a sword would have to deal with. 

Interestingly, there were small remains of leather and wood fused with the blade, including the scabbard it was buried in. Organic materials do not survive well in most climates, so this was a lucky find and can provide some indication of how scabbards were made in period.

The hilt of the sword; traces of the leather originally wrapped around the tang are still visible

One of the most striking features is the blade inscription. It may look like it has been lifted straight from the pages of Tolkien, but it is one of over a hundred and fifty such examples of inscribed blades from the 9th to 11th century. The most common inscription amongst this group of swords reads ‘the sword of Ulfberht’, which is why these swords are broadly referred to as Ulfberht swords. Other examples do exist, such as ‘the sword of Ingelrii’.  

Surely this is more than just a maker’s mark, perhaps becoming a workshop’s brand as the use of these inscriptions goes on for longer than any individual's lifetime. The runes on this particular blade do not seem to exactly spell ‘Ulfberht’, which could mean it is trying to mimic one of these prestigious blades, or it could just be a spelling error! It is unknown where they originate from, but one popular theory suggests the forge’s location was somewhere along the River Rhine in what is now Germany. To me, it represents how much value swords had in society. It gives a far more complex perspective of power, politics and artistic culture than many other objects from this period can.

Finlay

Placement Student

Ore-some Metalwork

The Roman Baths collection is full of amazing metalwork. In Roman and Iron Age Britain, lead, tin, copper and iron were mined and used for everything from tools to religious items.

Investigating an Iron Age coin at the Roman Baths

Imperial lead from the nearby Mendip Hills had several different uses at the Roman Baths. This malleable, waterproof metal was frequently used for plumbing — a word which actually comes from the Latin for lead: plumbum. Even now, the floor of the Great Bath is lined with Roman lead, which is still watertight after two thousand years!

The lead lining of the Great Bath

Lead could also be alloyed with tin (mined in Cornwall) to make pewter. Over 100 pewter curse tablets have been discovered at the Roman Baths, written and thrown into the Sacred Spring by victims of theft asking Sulis Minerva to punish the culprit. Pewter food and drink vessels were also tossed into the Spring as tribute for the goddess. Although these had a religious purpose, the Romans also stored wine in lead alloy vessels like these because it gave the wine a sweeter taste!

Roman pewter vessel discovered in the Spring

One of the curses is made from tin alone, and is an unusual circular shape. Perhaps it was once worn as a pendant before being thrown into the Spring, inscribed with a list of Celtic names.

Tin could also be alloyed with copper to make bronze. Copper was mined in Derbyshire and the Lake District. Since copper products are attractive and resistant to erosion, copper alloys were often used for delicate decorative items. My favourite example is the tiny bronze eagle figurine, once possibly attached to a vessel.

Copper alloy Roman eagle figurine 

Bronze and silver were used for coinage both before and after the Roman invasion of Britain. Iron Age coins were usually inscribed with pellets, crescents and lines, often making up the image of a head or triple-tailed horse. The Romans sometimes used orichalcum — an alloy of copper and zinc — in their coinage, too.

Iron Age coin showing stylised face on obverse and horse on reverse

Less attractive than copper, iron was used for more practical purposes. Iron ox shoes have been discovered in the farmlands north of Bath, and iron styluses were used for writing on wax tablets. Iron was mined in the wooded areas of the Forest of Dean and the Weald, where trees provided fuel for the charcoal smelting facilities.

Roman iron axe

Unfortunately, the acids and residues on our fingers cause metals to corrode, so they usually can’t be handled! However, we can still admire this ore-some metalwork from afar.

Ellie

Collections Volunteer

British Science Week: A Weighty Subject

To celebrate British Science Week 2019 (8^th – 17^th March) at the Roman Baths, several displays were set up around the museum on the Saturday to showcase some of the scientific aspects of Roman life on this ancient site. I set up a handling table, laid out with a selection of objects not currently on public display, to highlight the various different ways in which the Romans utilised lead.

Lead was used for a whole variety of things in the Roman period, such as slingshot missiles, make-up and anchors. The lead found here at the Roman Baths was mined locally in the Mendip Hills, where there is a large deposit of naturally-occurring ore. This was often combined with tin (from Cornwall) to form an alloy called pewter.

Bowl of a pewter spoon, missing its handle. Discovered in the Temple Precinct.

The majority of the Baths’ 130 curse tablets, all of which were published by R. S. O. Tomlin (Cunliffe 1988), are also composed of this alloy. Curse tablets were a means by which the victim of a crime – usually theft – could vent their anger and express their desire for revenge to be visited on the culprit, by writing a prayer to the goddess Sulis Minerva on the metal and throwing it into the Sacred Spring. 

A curse tablet was made by first melting some lead alloy, then leaving it to set after pouring it out. A thin sheet could then be fashioned out of the cool metal by hammering it, before the message was inscribed on the surface with a stylus.

Curse tablet inscribed with a list of names, originally folded five times.

A few examples were simply left in their original solidified state, resembling a smooth pebble, such as this:

Curse tablet inscribed with a list of names.

Pure lead was used as a sealing agent in more heavy-duty work. The Great Bath is still lined with the original lead sheeting laid down by the Romans to keep it watertight, a fragment of which was removed in the discovery of the Great Bath in 1871.

Lead sheet fragment from the Great Bath - deceptively heavy!

Thanks to its durability, a large quantity of Roman leadwork from the site has survived, allowing us a deeper insight into the Romans’ metallurgical practices.

Jack

Collections Volunteer

Bibliography:

Cunliffe, Barry (editor). The Temple of Sulis Minerva at Bath. Volume 2. The Finds from the Sacred Spring.  Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, 1988.

Tuesday Times Tables: Marvellous Medieval Metalwork

On 1^st August, I took eight different objects to the Great Bath area for visitors to handle. These objects were all under the theme of medieval metalwork to show the public a different side of the Roman Baths collection.

Vicky with her Tuesday Times Table

The tweezers were especially popular as they look so similar to modern day ones, but my personal favourite had to be the Papal Bull Seal. The Papal Bull was a formal proclamation from the Pope at that time, which was sent out to the countries whom it was relevant to. This would have been sealed with a lead bulla, which is unique to that Pope. Papal Bulls were first used in the Sixth Century, but were not officially known as Papal Bulls until the Fifteenth Century. At this time one of the offices of the Papal Chancery was named the ‘Register of Bulls’, though the term itself has been used from the Thirteenth Century.

Left: front of Papal Bull seal. Right: Reverse of Papal Bull seal

At first sight, it looks like a plain circular piece of stone, though on further inspection it can be seen that it is made of lead, which due to its property of corrosion resistance means that a lot of the pattern is still intact. On the front, there are two visible faces, and on the back is barely decipherable writing, though it can be identified as being a Papal Bull from Pope John XXII. 

This narrows the timeline down to 1316 – 1334, which in comparison to the other items on the table (where only general periods could be provided) is a lovely precise date. Sadly we do not have the Papal Bull itself, as it was made of parchment so hasn’t survived, meaning we cannot know the exact declaration which this seal was attached to.

For me, the most interesting part of this object is how it was found. According to our records a Mr. Symons was casually digging up his turnips and suddenly he found a Papal Bull seal in the ground in Freshford, Bath. Luckily, he knew it was important and not a useless circular stone and now it remains in the Roman baths collection. If only I was so lucky with my gardening!

Vicky

Roman Society Placement

Saltford Festival: Musings on Metalwork

Roman Baths object handling at Saltford Brass Mill

At the beginning of June, our Collections and Learning teams packed up the van and spent the day at Saltford Brass mill for the Saltford Festival.

We took a selection of archaeological metalwork to fit with the theme of the location, choosing objects from the local area and that could showcase the use and preservation of different types of metal.

Copper Alloy

A pair of Roman tweezers found in Keynsham

As we were in a Brass mill, brass would be the most fitting metal to choose! However, archaeologists choose not to distinguish between brass and bronze, instead using the term ‘copper alloy’. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin and brass is a mixture of copper and zinc, and without scientific testing it’s very difficult to distinguish between the two.

You can recognise copper alloy from the tell-tale green colour caused by corrosion, sometimes called verdigris.

Iron

A selection of iron objects including an axehead from the site of the Thermae Spa in Bath

Again, iron is recognisable from the way it corrodes, producing distinctive red rust. As with all metals we do our best to slow down and prevent this process, keeping the objects as dry as possible in sealed containers with packets of silica gel to absorb any moisture.

The objects pictured are in particularly good condition. Archaeological metalwork is not always so lucky!

Lead

A piece of the lead sheets used to line the Great Bath

Lead from the Roman Baths has survived incredibly well and some Roman pieces are still in place, for example the sheets that line the Great Bath. We took a section of that lead with us to Saltford, and almost everyone commented on the incredible weight of just this one small piece!

You may question the use of lead, and rightly so. Today we know that it is poisonous, and we definitely wouldn’t use it to line our baths! However, the Romans didn’t know this and instead prized it as the perfect material for plumbing.

Silver

A silver coin of Julian II

There are a number of silver objects in the Roman Baths collection, and most of them are coins. The examples we took to Saltford included a Roman Imperial coin known as a siliqua of Julian II, made at the mint at Trier, Germany. 

Silver is a perfect choice for making currency, and even though this coin is well over 1,000 years old the design is as crisp as the day it was struck! 

Did you know?

The Latin for Lead is plumbum (also used for its chemical element symbol Pb), which is where the word ‘plumbing’ comes from!

Zofia

Collections Assistant

Greek coinage at the Roman Baths

Ancient Greek coinage had been in use for around six centuries before Greece became part of the Roman Empire. Hand made in the same way Roman coins are (struck using a cast die), these coins had a variety of images and symbols which can be connected to Greek Heroes and Gods. This symbolism could be used to prove an individuals power and right to rule within the ancient world.

For my Money Monday handing session in the summer, I chose to focus on Greek coinage and connections that could be found to Alexander the Great (356-323 BC). Son of Phillip II of Macedon and part of the Argead dynasty, Alexander became king at 20 years old and ruled one of the largest ancient empires by the age of 30. Covering an area of 2,000,000 sq mi, Alexanders empire included modern day Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Iraq and covered an area as far east as India. Greek influence  in these areas would last for 200-300 years after Alexanders death.

This map shows the extent of Alexanders empire before his death in 323 BC.

The Greek coins within the Roman Baths collection show a rich variety of connections to Alexander the Great and a number were selected to use during the handling session. Key themes included Alexander's connection to the hero Heracles; who the Argead dynasty claimed to be descended from, Alexander's connection to Zeus and his deification in Egypt and the spread of Hellenistic culture across his empire.

The coins often show  the image of Alexander wearing the skin of a lion, portraying himself in the image of Heracles after he slew the Nemean lion.  The lion is a recurring theme and can be seen on a number of the coins within the Roman Baths collection 

Hemistater of Macedon with lions head

The next coin that was used for the handling session shows Alexander as a God. Pronounced a son of Amun in Egypt by the oracle, Alexander referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father. The ram horns seen on the first image are a symbol of his divinity. The writing on the reverse (second image) shows this was a coin of  King Lysimachus of Thrace who came to rule part of Alexander's Empire after his death. The use of the image of Alexander was used by Lysimachus to show his right to rule during the war of the  ‘diadochi’ or successors.

When looking at the coinage of an individual, it can tell us a lot about their personality and what they see or think of themselves. This makes this type of coinage invaluable to our understanding of the period. 

Rachel

Roman Bracelets

Snakes, spinning and stone: what do they have in common? Roman bracelet designs!



One of the curatorial tasks at the Roman Baths Museum is to update the collection records. This involves checking that each object has been photographed, described and researched and preparing needed information for entry to the collection management database.

Earlier this year, a collection of eleven Roman bracelets needed to be catalogued so they were tekan off display and brought to the office where the curatorial staff and volunteers had the opportunity to look at each one closely and admire their detail and workmanship while they were being documented.

A favourite bracelet looks like a snake chasing its tail, but is not connected. The snake has an oval body, shaped mouth and ear-lugs, impressed eyes and ear-holes with evidence of scales on the tail.



Our beautiful spiral snake bracelet.

Research has revealed that its single-headed spiral form and naturalistic style mean it is possibly an early example of popular Roman spiral snake jewellery. To the Romans, the snake was a symbol of healing, regeneration and rebirth. A similar bracelet is part of the Llandovery Hoard.
Roman women and girls adorned themselves with jewellery of many different materials and designs. Most of the examples in this group are made from a flat ribbon of metal with incised, punched or notched decoration but there are also three bracelets made from wire.

Another is made of three wire strands spun together with a single strand extending at one end to form a loop. When examined closely, we noticed that one of the three strands has corroded differently and is green for its full length.

Three-tone twisted-wire bracelet.

The bracelet appears to be made from wires of different alloys and may have been three different colours when new.

Most of the bracelets are made from copper alloyed with other metals in various proportions. The different bracelet is carved from shale, a layered sedimentary rock. Although there is only a segment left, this piece shows it was originally quite large and slightly conical in shape.



Remaining segment of the shale bracelet

 It is possible this bracelet was shaped to fit the upper arm above the bicep muscle, perhaps made for a man.

All eleven bracelets are on display in the Aquae Sulis gallery of the museum so everybody can have a close look and share our admiration at their workmanship.


Nicola Pullan is a foreign correspondent from the University of Sydney.


Refs: Brailsford, Guide to the Antiquities of Roman Britain
Davenport, Archaeology in Bath, Excavations 1984-1989
Johns, The Jewellery of Roman Britain

關於…金屬 (It's all about.... Metal)

幾個星期前，羅馬古浴場(Roman Baths)舉辦了令人期待的國家科學與工程週(Science and Engineering week)!整個星期的每一天都會有很多不同的科學實驗和展示桌。 其中一個展示桌是由我來負責，而我選擇了論金屬。 這是關於當時羅馬人在整個羅馬帝國使用金屬的真實內幕。

黃金

時至今日仍是世界上最令人渴求的金屬之一! 羅馬帝國的黃金是來自於不同的開採地，包括西班牙、葡萄牙和威爾斯的Dolaucothi。金屬的柔軟性和延展性令它很容易被塑造成不同的形狀。它是一種很受歡迎的金屬，常被打造成首飾如項鍊、手鍊、胸針和戒指。

銀

羅馬貨幣依賴大量的銀條。銀在羅馬帝國幾處不同的地方開採，包括高盧、希臘和小亞細亞。據估計，在第二世紀中期有10,000噸銀在市場流通。這種有光澤又柔軟的金屬常被製成首飾、硬幣和餐具。銀也被用於治療感染或疾病。

鉛

由於鉛的易開採性和易用性，它在羅馬世界得以廣泛使用。這種金屬在不同的地方開採，包括中歐、西班牙、不列顛和希臘。由於其高度的延展性和可鍛性，鉛常被用於建造羅馬的管道。鉛的符號為Pb，是拉丁文Plumbum的縮寫。正如你所想像的，Plumblum衍生成後來的英文單詞”Plumbing”。

鐵

鐵在全世界最普遍的元素中排行第六。據估計，在羅馬帝國最興盛的時期，每年約有82,500噸鐵在市面流通。在羅馬的統治下，鐵成為一種頗為普及的金屬，它的用途也增多不少。這種金屬被用來製作武器和羅馬人日常生活相關的工具。

青銅

青銅主要是一種由銅和1/3錫組成的合金。青銅在不同的地方開採，包括高盧、塞浦路斯和阿拉伯。羅馬人會推倒在帝國本土的宗教的青銅雕塑，再溶掉它們來製造盔甲、武器、工具和硬幣。由於羅馬帝國的擴張，為了幫助羅馬的經濟預算，在大部份情況下，像青銅這樣沒有那麼珍貴的金屬便取代了黃金或銀來作硬幣。

白鑞

白鑞是一種由80-90%錫和10-20%鉛組成的合金。錫是從伊比利亞、波斯和不列顛尼亞開採出來的。白鑞是一種很好的熱導體，它有時會用於製造煮食工具和餐具。倖存的白鑞樣本是在不列顛尼亞發現的，大概回溯到公元第3和第4世紀。

Source text: http://bathsbloggers.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/its-all-about-metal.html


Translated by Ruby Chung - Cardiff University MA Translation Student

Tout sur... La radiographie (It's all about... X-rays)

National Science and Engineering Week (la Semaine nationale de la science et l'ingénierie) nous a donné l’occasion pour découvrir quelques aspects moins communs de l'archéologie. Parmi ces aspects, la radiographie est toujours restée un mystère pour moi. Nous avons tous entendu parler de la radiographie, et la plupart des gens a déjà passé une radiographie pour des raisons médicales, mais la radiographie est aussi une technique d'analyse très utile pour les archéologues!

Zosia au stand radiographie

La radiographie est un type de radiation électromagnétique pouvant créer des images qui montrent les caractéristiques et les détails invisibles qui ne à l'œil nu. Il est essentiel de radiographier les objets en métal pour créer un souvenir visuel de la composition de l’objet ainsi que sa forme et sa condition. La radiographie peut aussi identifier un objet s’il est couvert par des couches de corrosion ou de concrétion. La radiographie est une méthode d'examen scientifique qui ne dérange ni ne détruit les objets de quelque manière que ce soit.

Pour ces raisons, les objets sont souvent radiographiés pendant le processus de conservation. Tous les objets choisis pour l'exposition font partie de l'excavation de Thermae Spa en centre ville de Bath, et ils ont été sélectionnés pour la place qu’occupe leurs radiographies au sein des archives.

Une radiographie d'une pièce de monnaie qui fait tirée des excavations SPA98.

En général, presque tous les objets en métal devraient être radiographiés, mais c'est moins efficace pour les grands objets ou les alliages de plomb. Cette technique est utile parce qu'elle peut démasquer des petits outils piégés dans la corrosion et elle peut aussi exposer les marques d'identification sur les pièces de monnaie qui ont perdu les détails sur leur surface. Les découvertes fragiles ou complexes sont souvent soulevées dans un bloc de terre, et la radiographie est utilisée pour voir et localiser leur contenu afin de les fouiller d’une manière plus prudente dans un laboratoire. Par exemple, si on radiographit un bloc de terre qui contient un trésor de pièces de monnaie, on peut apprendre comment il a été déposé, car l'image va révéler les groupes ou les couches.

Les détails ornementaux sur la surface des objets, comme l'incrustation ou l'émail, peuvent aussi être vus avec la radiographie. Les couches non-ferreuses deviennent visibles au cause de la différence entre la densité de chaque métal.

Les recommandations du groupe English Heritage sur la radiographie des articles de ferronnerie archéologiques (http://www.helm.org.uk/upload/pdf/X_Radiography.pdf?1331775979) (en anglais) contiennent beaucoup d'images qui montrent la valeur de la radiographie des articles de ferronnerie. Ce site contient des images de l'incrustation et de l'identification des pièces de monnaie. Je vous conseille de regarder ce site, même si ce n’est que pour vous émerveiller devant de belles images!

Source text: http://bathsbloggers.blogspot.co.uk/2012/05/its-all-about-x-rays.html

Translated by Sarah Uhl - Cardiff  University MA Tanslation Student.

Tout sur... Le métal (It's all about... metal)

Il y a quelques semaines, les Roman Baths (les bains romains) ont connu leur formidable Science and Engineering Week (la Semaine nationale de la science et l'ingénierie)! Chaque jour pendant une semaine il y a eu des expositions et des expériences scientifiques. J'ai créé une de ces expositions, et j'ai choisi de parler des métaux. Voici tous les détails sur les métaux utilisés à l'époque de l'empire romain.

Préparation de l’exposition avec Zosia.

L'or

Un des métaux les plus prisés même aujourd'hui! Dans l'empire romain, l'or était extrait de beaucoup de lieux comme l'Espagne, le Portugal et Dolaucothi au Pays de Galles. Les caractéristiques tendres et la malléabilité de ce métal ont rendus facile la formation de l'or dans des formes différentes. L'or était le métal préféré pour la fabrication de bijoux comme les colliers, les bracelets, les broches, et les bagues.

L'argent

La monnaie romaine comptait sur des grandes réserves de lingots d'argent. Dans l'empire romain, l'argent était extrait de beaucoup de lieux comme la Gaule, la Grèce et l'Asie mineure. Au milieu de deuxième siècle on estime qu’il y avait 10,000 tonnes d'argent en circulation. Ce métal brillant et tendre était utilisé pour la fabrication de bijoux, de pièces de monnaie, et d’ustensiles. L'argent était aussi utilisé pour traiter les infections et les maladies.

Le plomb

Dans l'empire romain, le plomb était communément utilisé parce qu'il était facile à extraire et à utiliser. Ce métal était extrait de beaucoup de lieux comme l'Europe centrale, l'Espagne, la Grande-Bretagne et la Grèce. Le plomb était utilisé pour la fabrication de la tuyauterie romaine en raison de sa malléabilité et de sa ductilité. Le symbole du plomb est Pb, qui est l'abréviation du mot latin Plumbum. Comme vous pouvez le deviner, le mot français <> vient de <>

Le fer

Le fer est le sixième élément le plus commun dans l'univers. Au point culminant de l'empire romain, on estime qu’il y avait environ 82500 tonnes de fer en circulation chaque année. A cette époque, le fer est devenu un métal très populaire, et l’utilisation du fer a augmenté. Ce métal était utilisé pour la fabrication d’armes et d’outils pour la vie quotidienne des Romains.

Le bronze

Le bronze est un alliage de cuivre et 1/3 étain. Le cuivre était extrait de beaucoup de lieux comme la Gaule, Chypre, et l'Arabie. Les Romains ont démoli les sculptures en bronze des religions locales dans leur empire pour les fondre afin de créer des armures, des armes, des outils, et de la monnaie. Après l'agrandissement de l'empire, les Romains ont utilisé des métaux moins précieux comme le bronze pour la fabrication de la monnaie au lieu de l'or ou de l'argent, pour des raisons économiques.

L'étain

L'étain est un alliage de 80% à 90%  étain et 10% à 20% plomb. L'étain était extrait de beaucoup de lieux comme l'Ibérie, la Perse, et la Grande-Bretagne romaine. L'étain conduit bien la chaleur, il est ainsi utilisé pour la fabrication d’ustensiles de cuisine et de table. Aujourd’hui encore, il existe des objets en étain datant du 3ème et 4ème siècle et provenant de la Grande-Bretagne romaine.

Source text: http://bathsbloggers.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/its-all-about-metal.html


Translated by Sarah Uhl - Cardiff University MA Tanslation Student.

Es dreht sich alles um... Röntgenstrahlung (It's all about.... X-rays)

Die Nationale Woche der Wissenschaft und Technik bot uns die Möglichkeit ungewöhnlichere Themen der Archäologie zu beleuchten und eines, das schon immer ein Rätsel für mich darstellte, ist Röntgenografie. Wir alle haben von Röntgenstrahlen gehört - die meisten Menschen wurden schon einmal an irgendwelchen Körperteilen aus medizinischen Gründen geröntgt - aber nun stellt sich heraus, dass das Röntgen auch eine sehr hilfreiche analytische Methode für Archäologen ist!

Zosia am Stand für Röntgenstrahlung

Röntgenografie ist ein Form von elektromagnetischer Strahlung, welche es uns ermöglicht Bilder mit Merkmalen und Details, die für das bloße Auge unsichtbar sind, herzustellen. Bei metallischen Röntgenobjekten ist es wichtig ein bildliches Protokoll zu erstellen, das nicht nur des Artefakts Form und Zustand zeigt, aber auch wie es angefertigt wurde. Röntgenbestrahlung kann auch bei der Identifikation eines Objektes behilflich sein, wenn es durch Schichten von Korrosion oder Konkretion bedeckt ist. Die Röntgenografie verkörpert eine exzellente wissenschaftliche Untersuchungsmethode ohne die archäologischen Funde in jeglicher Weise zu beeinflussen oder zu zerstören.

Aus diesen Gründen werden Artefakte im Rahmen des Erhaltungsprozesses geröntgt. Die Objekte, die für den Demonstrationsstand ausgewählt wurden, stammen alle von Ausgrabungen in den Thermalbädern Thermae Spa im Zentrum Baths und sie wurden ausgewählt, da Röntgenbilder von den Artefakten im Archiv vorhanden sind.

Röntgenbild einer römischen Münze aus den SPA98 Ausgrabungen

Generell gesprochen sollten fast alle Metallobjekte geröntgt werden, obwohl die Methode weniger effektiv bei sehr großen Proben oder Bleilegierungen erscheint. Es ist dennoch hilfreich, da es an kleineren Gegenständen, die sich in Korrosion befanden, diese verdeutlicht und Kennzeichen auf Münzen mit abgetragenen Oberflächen ans Licht bringen kann. Zerbrechliche oder komplizierte Funde werden oft in einem Erdblock geborgen und geröntgt, um das Objekt für eine umsichtigere Ausgrabung im Labor genau zu lokalisieren. Beispielsweise kann das Röntgen eines Erdblock, der einen Münzhort beinhaltet, Aufschluss darüber geben, wie die Münzen deponiert wurden, da das Röntgenbild die Anordnungen und Schichten aufdeckt.

Dekorative Muster an Oberflächen, so wie Einlegearbeiten oder Emaille, können ebenfalls durch die Röntgenbestrahlung erkannt werden und Schichten, die kein Eisen enthalten, werden sichtbar, aufgrund der verschiedenen Dichte zwischen den Metallen. Die Richtlinien der englischen Denkmalschutzorganisation English Heritage für Röntgenografie von archäologischen Metallarbeiten (http://www.helm.org.uk/upload/pdf/X_Radiography.pdf?1331775979 ) beinhalten einige tolle Beispiele, die genau zeigen, wie wertvoll das Röntgen von Metallartefakten sein kann, einschließlich Fotos von Einlegearbeiten und der Identifikation von Münzen. Ich kann wirklich empfehlen einen Blick darauf zu werfen, sei es auch einfach nur um die wunderschönen Bilder zu bewundern!

Source text: http://bathsbloggers.blogspot.co.uk/2012/05/its-all-about-x-rays.html

Translated by Mirjam Zdybel - Cardiff  University MA Tanslation Student.

Es dreht sich alles um... Metalle (It's all about.... Metal)

Vor einigen Wochen veranstalteten die Roman Baths die faszinierende Nationale Woche der Wissenschaft und Technik ("National Science and Engineering Week“)! An jedem Tag der besagten Veranstaltung fanden Experimente an Demonstrationsständen statt und einer dieser Stände stammte von mir. Ich entschied mich für das Thema Metalle. Die folgende Darstellung repräsentiert einen Einblick in die Metalle, die die Römer im Römischen Reich zur Verfügung hatten.


Bei der Planung meines Standes mit Zosia

Gold

Immer noch eines der begehrtesten Metalle auch in der heutigen Zeit! Im Römischen Reich wurde Gold an den verschiedensten Orten geschürft, einschließlich Spanien, Portugal und Dolaucothi in Wales. Aufgrund seiner weichen Konsistenz und Geschmeidigkeit ließ sich es leicht in verschiedene Formen schlagen. Daher war es das bevorzugte Metall für die Herstellung von Schmuck, wie etwa Ketten, Armbändern, Broschen und Ringen.

Silber

Die römische Währung war auf einen großen Vorrat an Silberbarren angewiesen. Silber wurde in vielen Orten des Reiches geborgen, einschließlich in Gallien, Griechenland und Kleinasien. In der Mitte des zweiten Jahrhunderts wurde geschätzt, dass sich 10.000 Tonnen Silber im Umlauf befanden. Dieses weiche, glänzende Metall wurde in Schmuck, Münzen und alltägliche Gegenstände umgewandelt und es wurde auch zur Behandlung von Infektionen und Krankheiten verwendet.

Blei

Blei wurde sehr häufig im Römischen Reich benutzt angesichts seiner leichten Gewinnung und da es einfach zu verarbeiten war. Dieses Metall wurde in mehreren Orten gefunden, mit unter in Zentraleuropa, Spanien, Britannien und Griechenland. Blei wurde in römischen Rohrarbeiten verwendet aufgrund seiner weichen und stark formbaren Konsistenz. Sein Elementsymbol ist Pb, welches die Abkürzung für das lateinische Wort Plumbum darstellt. Plumbum, wie ihr wohl vermutet habt, ist die Ableitung für das heutige Wort „plumbing“, zu deutsch „Klempnerarbeit“.

Eisen

Eisen ist das 6.-häufigste Element im Universum. Während seines Höhepunkts zirkulierten geschätzte 82.500 Tonnen Eisen jährlich im Römischen Reich. Unter römischer Herrschaft wurde Eisen sehr beliebt und vermehrt genutzt. Es wurde zur Herstellung von Waffen und Werkzeugen für den täglichen Gebrauch der Römer verwertet.

Bronze

Bronze stellt eine Legierung dar, die hauptsächlich aus Kupfer und zu 1/3 aus Zinn besteht. Kupfer wurde an diversen Orten geschürft, einschließlich Gallien, Zypern und Arabien. Die Römer zerstörten örtliche religiöse Skulpturen ihrer unterlegenen Gegner, um das Metall anschließend zu schmelzen und in Rüstungen, Waffen, Werkzeuge und Münzen zu verarbeiten. Als das Römische Reich sich vergrößerte, wurden weniger wertvolle Metalle, wie etwa Bronze, anstatt von Gold und Silber zur Herstellung von Münzen genutzt, um den römischen Haushalt aufzustocken.

Hartzinn

Hartzinn ist eine Legierung, die sich zu 80-90% aus Zinn und zu 10-20% aus Blei zusammensetzt. Zinn wurde an verschiedenen Regionen geschürft, wie etwa in Iberien, Persien und dem römischen Britannien. Hartzinn beweist sich als guter Wärmeleiter und wird gelegentlich für Koch- und Tafelgeschirr verwendet. Noch heute können erhaltene Gegenstände aus Hartzinn aus dem römischen Britannien des dritten und vierten Jahrhunderts nach Christus gefunden werden.


Source text: http://bathsbloggers.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/its-all-about-metal.html

Translated by Mirjam Zdybel - Cardiff University MA Tanslation Student.

It's all about.... Metal

A few weeks ago the Roman Baths had their exciting Science and Engineering week! Every day for a week there was a mix of science experiments and/or a display table. One of the display tables was created by me and I chose to talk about Metals. Here is the inside low down behind the metals the Romans would have had at their disposal throughout the Roman Empire.

Planning my table with Zosia

Gold
One of the world’s most desired metals even today! Gold in the Roman Empire was mined in various locations including Spain, Portugal and Dolaucothi in Wales. This metal’s soft properties and malleability made it easy to beat it into different shapes. It was a favourite metal to make into jewellery such as necklaces, bracelets, brooches and rings.

Silver
Roman currency relied on high supply of silver bullion. Silver was mined in various locations of the empire including Gaul, Greece and Asia Minor. In the mid 2nd century it was estimated 10,000 tons of silver was in circulation. This shiny, soft metal was used for jewellery, coins and utensils. Silver was also used to treat infections or illnesses.

Lead
Lead was commonly used in the Roman world because it was easily extracted and easy to work with. This metal was mined in various areas including central Europe, Spain, Britain and Greece. Lead was used for Roman piping because of its highly malleable and ductile properties. Lead’s symbol is Pb, which is the abbreviated word Plumbum in Latin. Plumbum, as you guessed it, derived later into the English word ‘Plumbing’.

Iron
Iron is the 6th most common element found in the universe. At the height of the Roman Empire it is estimated that approx 82,500 tons of iron was circulated annually. Under Roman rule iron became a very popular metal and its use intensified. This metal was used to create weapons and tools for everyday Roman life.

Bronze

Bronze is an alloy consisting mainly of copper and 1/3 tin. Copper was mined in various areas including Gaul, Cyprus and Arabia. Romans would tear down local religious bronze sculptures within the empire and melt the metal to make armour, weapons, tools and coins. As the Roman Empire expanded, to help the Roman budget, less precious metals like bronze were used more often for coins instead of gold or silver.

Pewter
Pewter is an alloy consisting 80-90% tin and 10-20% lead. Tin was mined in areas such as Iberia, Persia and Roman Britain. Pewter is a good conductor of heat and is sometimes used for cooking and tableware. Surviving examples of pewter can be found from Roman Britain dated around 3rd and 4th century AD.

For a link to just some of the metals within the Roman Bath's Collections please follow this link:
http://www.romanbaths.co.uk/explore/Search_Details.aspx

Solange - Collections placement

Conservation Consternation

There are often times when I wonder how some archaeological finds have managed to hold together for thousands of years. I find this thought particularly alarming when handling metal objects – they are so easily damaged by long periods of time in damp or waterlogged conditions.

A Saxon Spearhead from Batheaston Bypass, still in one piece and stable.

Even metal objects found in good condition are threatened by corrosion, and all objects sometimes require specific care and treatment by experts. For example, the pewter vessels and other artefacts from the King’s Bath corridor are soon to be redisplayed, and have been sent out in groups for conservation. The objects were conserved when they were found, but over time, the state of their treatment and attitudes towards care has changed. The pewter objects in particular looked dull and were coated in a waxy substance that seemed only to attract dust. When the items were returned from conservation, the difference was amazing.

Pewter patera after conservation

It turns out that the majority of the work done was to remove the waxy coating and degrease the surface of each object. The coating was replaced with a fine layer of microcrystalline wax to provide protection, and buffed to shine. In a few cases, fragments were reattached and broken areas were filled. However, it seems that when considering conservation, less is without doubt more – the purpose is to protect an artefact without changing its composition or encouraging degradation.

Learning about different types of metals, surface treatments and the process of corrosion is very useful, if only to highlight how much could go wrong with metal objects! A major problem is corrosion, caused when a metal object combines or reacts with other elements to form an undesirable compound, such as tarnish or rust. Corrosion is different from patination, which is generally more benign and will slow and stop without intervention – this occurrence can be seen on copper clad roofs as a blue green compound known as verdigris.

Statue of Liberty – the blue green colour is a result of natural patination

Corrosion generally occurs preferentially, which means that it will affect a reactive metal in preference to a more noble metal. This is the primary reason for galvanising iron with a coating of zinc, which is preferentially eroded to protect the main iron sheet. The process of corrosion can only happen with the presence of moisture, so all metal is stored at a very low humidity. The corrosion of iron, even if contaminated, will not take place if the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere is 20% or less. For archaeological iron, such as the spearhead, a relative humidity of 18% or less would be safest, preventing any possible further deterioration.

If you’re looking to find out more about the scientific side to archaeology, National Science and Engineering Week at the Roman Baths, 9th-18th March 2012, is definitely a date for your diary!



Useful links:

http://cci-icc.gc.ca/crc/articles/metals/corrosion-eng.pdf  

http://www.collectionslink.org.uk/media/com_form2content/documents/c1/a130/f6/003024.pdf