What Can We Learn From Animal Bones?

Animal bones found at archaeological excavations can provide valuable information about the past. They can tell us about butchery and eating habits, tool use, and the environment the bones were disposed of or buried in.

First, we must identify which animal the bones belong to. We can look at the overall size and robusticity of the bones, as well as the cranium (skull) and the mandible (jaw). The size, curvature, and profile of the mandible display distinct differences between animals. Sheep mandibles flare at the curve of the jaw, which differs from the more sloping profile of pig mandibles.

Pigs have one of the most distinctive teeth of domestic mammals. As omnivores, their teeth need to be able to both slice and grind their food, and so they display more pronounced canines and incisors compared to herbivores. Their teeth have flat shaped cusps ideal for their diet, this contrasts with the “W” shaped profile of sheep teeth, deer and cattle.

Sheep mandible (left), pig mandible (right)

Once the bone has been identified, we can examine the texture for signs of use by humans. Looking at the long bones for marks and scrapes can indicate intentional defleshing and butchery.

Differences in butchery methods and skill can lead to differences in cut marks, and it can sometimes be difficult to identify signs of intentional butchery. The clearest way to do so is by observing a V-shaped cross section. This V shape is characteristic of cutting with a lithic or metal knife, whereas a U-shaped mark indicates stone tools were used. 

Sheep tibia with cut marks (left), split cow radius (right)

Worked bone is also common, and indicates bone was also used to make tools, decorations and jewellery. Bone can be polished and incised with a decorative pattern.

This worked Roman sheep metapodia that was used as a handle for a blade or utensil

The colour and condition of the bones can also reveal information about the environment the remains were discarded or buried in, as well as actions of other animals.

When bones are discarded there is often still meat on the bone, and this can attract rodents which leave distinct parallel grooves and scrapes.  

A bright white bone indicates it was bleached by sunlight, whereas black and dark brown suggest exposure to bacteria, fungi and soil minerals. Green marks indicate contact with copper; this is a frequent occurrence in human remains due to grave goods. By noting these observations, we can construct a profile of the animal's environment.

Overall, there is much to be learned from animal bones in the archaeological context!

Lauren

Collections placement student

 

 

Pottery Party!

Did you know that we don't just have Roman objects in our collection? We have a wide array of objects, from sedan chairs, stone coffins and even mammoth teeth. But perhaps one of the most important finds we have is pottery. Pottery is a great tool for archaeologists as it gives an approximate time period for their excavation. But how do we know this? To figure it out, we employ the help of our trusty pottery flow chart.

The aim of this pottery game is to follow the questions on the flow chart to work out which time period your piece is from. If you are unsure about what a word means, scroll to the bottom of this article for our 'fun pottery words'. Let’s have a go together with this piece of pottery:

 

Do you think it is coated?

 

Coating is a shiny glaze which is put on the pottery for either decorative or waterproofing purposes - sometimes both! This sherd does have coating, as you can see the shiny green colour. Great! You answered the first question! Follow the flow chart to see where you end up next...

 

Is it coated only on the inside, only on the outside, or all over?

 

This piece is coated all over, as you can see the shiny green colour everywhere. It even has some lovely decorative addition on one side, with a motif that suggests nature and perhaps a recurring pattern. This takes us down to either Late Georgian period or the Victorian period. Congratulations! You narrowed it down to a much smaller time period. This piece is Victorian, and we can tell because of the fantastic colour and the decoration style.

 

Its intense green colour and the decoration tells us it is part of a 'Majolica' ware - a type of brightly coloured serving platter or plate that had recurring motifs with foliage or nature imagery on the top side. It would have been quite common in Victorian England.  You can see that this is a rim piece, showing a beautiful amount of detail in the patterning. 

This sherd came from an excavation in the Lower Borough Walls in Bath. Historically, the majolica ware's glaze was made from tin oxide which gave it the fantastically bright colour. Modern day majolica is still made today, but the tin has been replaced with something safer.

 

These are the kind of questions we ask ourselves as curators, archaeologists, and specialists to figure out the approximate time period of a pottery fragment, and now you've done it too. Consider yourself a pottery expert!

 

Fun Pottery Words

 

Ceramic or pottery – Pots, plates, cups and more that have been made from clay and heated to harden into a permanent shape.

 

Glaze – a glassy, shiny coating on the pottery used for both decoration and for protection, for example to make it waterproof.

 

Slip – a mixture normally made from clay and water that is put on the pottery before firing it. This slip can be colourful and decorative, and pottery with decorative slip is called ‘slipware’.

 

Kiln – a special oven made for firing pottery.

 

Firing – the process of putting the pottery in a kiln or fire at a high heat to harden the clay and make the pot usable. The exact process is different depending on what type of clay you are using, and what type of pottery you are making.

 

Handmade pottery – this is the oldest pottery technique. Handmade pottery involves shaping the pottery with your hands, such as pushing the clay into a curve with your fingers.

 

Wheel made or wheel thrown pottery – pottery that has been made on a spinning wheel to make it round. The spinning wheel has a flat, spinning surface that you can shape the pot on. This can also be called wheel thrown pottery, as you ‘throw’ the clay on the spinning wheel. Wheel made pottery is easier and quicker to make than handmade pottery.

Georgie

Collections placement student

Heads or Tales: Septimius Severus

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Septimius Severus’ reign.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Born in Leptis Magna, modern day Libya, Septimius Severus was the first African-born Roman emperor. His predecessor, Pertinax, was murdered by the Praetorian Guard. Following his proclamation as emperor, Severus declared himself as the avenger of Pertinax and marched on Rome. During his reign, Severus debased the Roman currency by decreasing the silver purity of the denarius. This was the largest act of debasement since Nero and compromised the long-term strength of the economy. His reign was also characterised by military campaigns in both Parthia and Britain.

Severus’ British campaign began in 208 CE and was sparked by an increase of raids and attacks on Roman Britain by the Caledonians, largely due to Hadrian’s Wall being unmanned. During the campaign, he quickly reached the Antonine Wall but was not able to fully subjugate Caledonia. Eventually, his campaign was cut short when he fell ill and he withdrew to Eboracum, modern day York, where he died. Following his death, the Romans never campaigned into Caledonia again, and the Roman frontier was permanently withdrawn to Hadrian’s wall.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, obverse 

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Septimius Severus facing right, with a wreath of laurels on his head known as a laureate crown.

Inscription: 

Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus Imperator III

This is his regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, reverse

Reverse:

The back of the coin depicts Jupiter, seated and facing left, holding a sceptre in one hand and a small Victory in the other one. Severus presents his victories, such as those in Parthia, as having been divinely ordained by Jupiter. 

Inscription:

Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate II, Consul III, Pater Patriae.

Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is followed by the number two, which indicates which term as Tribune the emperor was serving. Consul was the highest office under the Republic; during the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Severus’ third time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”.

Thanks for reading our final blog in this series, we hope you’ve enjoyed it and have been able to make #headsortales of some of them!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant

Heads or Tales: Hadrian

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Hadrian’s reign.

As of Hadrian, obverse (l) and reverse (r)
 

At the beginning of Hadrian’s reign, there was rebellion and unrest in Roman Britain. In 122 CE, construction for a defensive wall began, known as Hadrian’s Wall. It ran across the width of the island from Tyne and Wear in the east to Cumbria in the west. This ended the previous policy of imperial expansion, as Hadrian chose to focus on defending existing borders such as in Britain instead.

As of Hadrian, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin shows Hadrian, facing right with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown. He has a beard and was the first emperor since Nero to be shown with one.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus,

This was his regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter.

As of Hadrian, reverse

Reverse:

The back of the coin depicts Fortuna Redux, a form of the goddess Fortuna, holding a rudder and cornucopia. The cornucopia represents abundance, and Fortune helps to steer the course of events with the rudder. Fortuna Redux specifically oversaw a return from a long and perilous journey, as highlighted by the rudder.

Inscription:

Pontifex Maximus, Tribunica Potestate, Consul III, S.C., Fortuna Redux.

Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is often followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but that is not present on this coin. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Hadrian’s third time as consul. S.C. means Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issued under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Heads or Tales: Trajan

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Trajan’s reign.

Denarius of Trajan, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

During Trajan’s reign the Roman Empire was at its territorial height, and this period is remembered for the Empire’s extensive territorial expansion. His earliest conquests were the wars against Dacia, modern day Romania and its neighbouring countries. The first war (101-102 CE) resulted in Dacia becoming a client kingdom. The second war (105-106 CE) led to the destruction of the Dacian capital and the conquering of the region. Following the Dacian wars, Trajan then invaded the Parthian Empire to the east. He is also known for his extensive public building programmes, including Trajan’s Forum, Trajan’s Market, and Trajan’s Column, the latter of which depicts his victory in the Dacian Wars. There is very little known about Trajan’s attitude towards Britain as there is no reference to Britain in any contemporary written sources and he did not expand further into Britain.

Denarius of Trajan, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Trajan facing right, with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Optimus Augustus Germanicus Dacicus.

His regnal name was Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus, and this was used during his reign and thereafter. The term optimus, meaning “the best”, was bestowed upon Trajan by the Roman Senate due to his popularity among his peers. It appeared on coins from 105 CE onwards, so this coin dates to after that time. The title Germanicus was conferred upon him during Nerva’s reign, when he was governor of Upper Germany. He was awarded this on account of his rule of the volatile province. The title Dacicus is a victory title, reflecting Trajan’s conquest of Dacia.

Denarius of Trajan, reverse

Reverse:

On the back of the coin is Providentia, the personification of foresight. She stands, facing left, and is holding a staff, with her hand resting on a column. Her appearance is used by Trajan to publicise that he is aware of the needs of the empire and its people and is taking steps to meet them.

Inscription:

Providentia Parthicus Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate, Consul IV, Pater Patriae, SPQR.

Like with the titles Germanicus and Dacicus, Parthicus reflects Trajan’s Parthian campaign. Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is often followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but not on this coin. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Trajan’s fourth time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”. SPQR stands for the Senate and the Roman People and is a phrase commonly associated with Trajan and the Roman Empire. This emphasises that his authority comes from the Senate and the People, rather than his adoption by his predecessor Nerva.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant 

 

Heads or Tales: Nerva

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Nerva’s reign.

Dupondius of Nerva, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Following the assassination of Domitian in 96 CE, Nerva was proclaimed emperor by the Senate. His reign was welcomed by senators, who had previously been persecuted under Domitian’s rule. Nerva openly promised that no senators would be executed during his reign. He also ended trials for crimes of treason, released those imprisoned for treason, and granted amnesty to those who were exiled. When he died, he was the last emperor to be interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus.

Dupondius of Nerva, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Nerva facing right facing right and wearing a crown of spikes known as a radiate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Nerva Caesar Augustus Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate, Consul… Pater Patriae.

The first four names refer to Nerva’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest, the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. This is followed by “tribune of the people”, a role representing the common people in government. It is sometimes followed by a number to indicate which term as tribune the emperor was serving, but not here. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted. Usually, a number follows to indicate how many times the emperor had been consul and thus when the coin was minted but is illegible here. The final phrase translates to “father of his country”. 

Dupondius of Nerva, reverse

Reverse:

The back shows Libertas, the personification of liberty, standing and holding a pileus and a vertical sceptre in each hand. The pileus is a soft woven wool cap which was often used as a symbol of freedom. They were sometimes worn by newly freed enslaved people to reflect their newfound liberty, old men, and the sick. The sceptre is a sign of divinity and associated with Jupiter, and later served to demonstrate imperial power. The reference to the imperial ideal of liberty contrasts Nerva’s reign with that of his predecessor Domitian.

Inscription:

Libertas Publica S.C.

This translates to “public freedom”. S.C. stands for Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant 

Heads or Tales: Domitian

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Domitian’s reign.

Dupondius of Domitian, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Domitian, alongside Agricola, his governor of Britain, attempted to expand the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia (modern day Scotland) during his reign. Eventually, he recalled Agricola to Rome in 85 CE. In 87 and 88 CE, following a war with the Kingdom of Dacia (modern day Romania), Domitian ordered a withdrawal of troops from Caledonian forts. During his reign, he dramatically revalued the Roman currency by increasing the silver purity of the denarius.

Dupondius of Domitian, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Domitian, facing right and wearing a crown of spikes known as a radiate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Domitian Augustus Germanicus Consul XIII Censor Perpetuus Pater Patriae.

The first four names refer to Domitian’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. The title Germanicus was given to Domitian after his campaign against the Chatti, a Germanic tribe, in 83 CE. The consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Domitian’s eighth time as consul. Censor Perpetuus refers to Domitian’s title of “perpetual censor”, a Republican office which was originally held for five years. The censor was a magistrate responsible for regulating public morality and maintaining the census; his power was absolute. Successive emperors did not assume this title.

Dupondius of Domitian, reverse

Reverse:

On the back is Fortuna, the goddess of good fortune, facing left. She holds a cornucopia and rudder. With good fortune comes abundance, as represented by the cornucopia, and Fortuna also helps to steer future events with the rudder. Through Fortuna, Domitian presents himself and his reign as a period of abundance and good fortune.

Inscription:

Fortuna Augusti S.C.

Fortuna Augusti refers to Fortuna herself.

S.C.

This means Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor 

Collections Assistant 

Heads or Tales: Vespasian

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman occupation. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Vespasian’s reign.

Dupondius of Vespasian, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Before he was emperor, Vespasian had a successful military career and in 43 CE he was involved in the Roman invasion of Britain. Once emperor, Vespasian restored peace and stability after a year of civil wars and short-lived emperors. Within Britain, he further increased imperial expansion through his general Agricola.

Dupondius of Vespasian, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Vespasian in profile, facing right with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown.

Inscription:

The inscription reads Imperator Caesar Vespasian Augustus Consul VIII Pater Patriae. The first four names refer to Vespasian’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. The consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Vespasian’s eighth time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”.

Dupondius of Vespasian, reverse

Reverse:

The back shows Fides, goddess of trust and good faith, holding a cornucopia and patera. The cornucopia is a symbol of abundance and fecundity, and it shows that the emperor will provide for his people. The patera is a round, shallow dish, and was used in religious ceremonies for two reasons, either to receive the blood of sacrificial animals or to offer to the gods libations of wine. When the patera is held by a deity on a coin, it represents their divine honours.

Inscription:

Fides Publica

This is the name of the goddess.

S.C.

This means Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority. 

The edge of this coin is cut on one side, and it is possible this was a deliberate act of mutilation of the coin. In cutting the coin, it can no longer be used as money and so it forever remains as a gift to the goddess. Coins like this are found across the empire, especially at temples and shrines.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor 

Collections Assistant

Heads or Tales: Nero

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman occupation. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Nero's reign.

Dupondius of Nero, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Nero’s reign of Britain was punctuated by the Boudican revolt of 60/61 CE. Boudica, queen of the Iceni tribe, led a rebellion against the Romans after they annexed the kingdom of her late husband, who had previously ruled as an independent ally of Rome. Her revolt resulted in the destruction of Camulodunum (modern day Colchester), and the burning of Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St Albans). The revolt led to Nero considering whether to withdraw imperial forces from Britain, but Boudica’s subsequent defeat reinstated Roman control within the province. 

Dupondius of Nero (obverse)

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Nero in profile, facing right and wearing a crown of spikes known as a radiate crown.

Inscription:

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Tribuncia Potestate Imperator Pater Patriae.

The first five names refer to Nero’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, and it was the representative of the people in the government. It is sometimes followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but not here. The rest translates to “emperor” and “father of his country”.

Dupondius of Nero (reverse)

Reverse:

On the back is the Macellum Magnum, and a male figure standing at the top of the steps holding a long sceptre.

A macellum is an indoor food market, often selling meat, fish and vegetables. The complex was situated on the Caelian Hill in Rome and was built and dedicated by Nero in 59 CE. The depiction of the Macellum Magnum is important for two reasons: Firstly, it records in great detail a monumental building which is now lost to us. Secondly, coins were used by emperors to disseminate their image throughout the Empire and the depiction of the Macellum Magnum demonstrates the building’s importance to Nero and promotes his public programs.

Inscription:

MAC AVG

This stands for Maceullum Augusti, which is another name for the Maceullum Magnum. This reinforces Nero’s dynastic connection to Emperor Augustus, the first Roman Emperor.

S.C. II.

This means Senatus Consultus and is a term commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins, which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority. 

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor
Collections Assistant

A Stony Situation

With a very busy summer coming to an end, you might expect life at the Roman Baths to quieten down a little - but things couldn’t be further from the truth! The Archway Project is in full swing, with some preliminary excavations in the vault beneath York Street in central Bath already unearthing some exciting surprises.

Archaeologists at work in the York Street vault

When the Archway building works under York Street are completed and the new Investigation Zone is opened to the public, it will be filled with Roman stones from the site as part of the interpretation and display. The Collections team and our volunteers have undertaken the laborious task of recording hundreds of stones, some previously unidentified and many untouched since their discovery by the Victorians.

Identifying stones at our offsite store 

With all hands on deck and a crack team from Cliveden Conservation, who lifted, weighed and sometimes turned each stone individually, we recorded 202 stones with weights going up to 620kg in just 10 days!

Cliveden Conservation lifting and weighing a stone from the Roman Baths

In that time, Cotswold Archaeology joined us for three days to create a 3D photogrammetric record of 15 specific stones. This involved taking hundreds of photographs of each stone from every angle possible in order to create a digital 3D model that can be examined in minute detail, rotated and moved around with ease on a screen. The chosen stones will be used in an app for schoolchildren to identify specific types of Roman building blocks and manipulate them on screen, learning more about Roman building and how the Roman Baths may once have looked.

Photogrammetry in action!

The results of this work will also be incredibly helpful as a conservation record for our collection, showing the stones in a way that allows us to easily examine, compare and move them around without having to physically lift these huge blocks again! Our plan is to produce a 3D model of every stone that we have been examining, and with this technology at our fingertips continue to learn more about our incredible site for years to come!

A sea of stones, recorded, weighed and identified

For more information about the Archway Project go to our website and keep an eye on our Facebook page for updates as they happen!


Zofia
Collections Assistant

Festival of Archaeology: Baffling Bones!

Last month, we decided to assemble a table of animal bones and activities for the Festival of Archaeology, which was held at the Roman Baths on Monday 17^th July. This involved sorting through and selecting an appropriate variety of animal bones, that were suitable for the public to handle and use for the activities.

Once we had chosen the bones, we then had a task of identifying what part of the skeleton they came from and what animal it belonged to (this could be hard, especially if they were broken!) After going through 5kg of assorted animal bones and fragments, we had a huge mixture, that ranged from a pig’s vertebrae (part of the spine) to a horse’s tibia (upper back leg bone) and a cow’s mandible (jaw).

Vicky and Maddy with their 'Baffling Bones!' handling table

We also set up an activity called “Baffling Bones!”, the aim of this was to see if people could identify the bones provided, and try to figure out which animal they came from. For the younger children, there was a game, where they were given a picture of a cow’s skeleton, and they had to put the labels of bones in the correct places to win a sticker!

On the table, we also had a cow’s skull which was found in the Temple Precinct (thought to be medieval) and photos of the Temple Precinct under excavation. 

I brought the bones out again for Tuesday Times Tables the next day, and had a total of 96 visitors in 2 hours!

If you missed the Festival of Archaeology or the start of our Tuesday Times Tables, don't panic! Handling tables continue every Tuesday evening until the 29^th of August.

Maddy

Placement Student

Way Back Wednesday: the Science of Skeletons

As well as organising the Science Week events at the Roman Baths, I was able to design a handling table. My topic of choice was human remains, as I have an interest in them and there is a lot they can tell you. One issue with this is the ethics of choosing to have human remains in public areas of the site as visitors may not wish to see human remains outside a case. This was overcome by producing a sign to warn visitors about the remains on show and to only have skeletal elements not whole skeletons out.

My research for the table was into how you could age and sex a skeleton from different elements. It was hard to condense the information down into language that the everyday reader would understand as there are lots of technical words such as diaphysis and epiphysis for the shaft and ends of long bones respectively.  This could have be why information sheets explaining how to do this have not been produced before.

Skull of a Roman Male

One common comment made about the table was about the condition of the teeth.  Teeth are the most common skeletal element found as they are resistant to chemical and physical destruction. The teeth which attracted the most attention belonged to a 25 year old Roman male, and the condition divided opinion. Some said they were well looked after and in better condition than the modern equivalent, while others said they were worn. The teeth could be in better condition due to the fact the Romans didn’t consume as much sugar as the modern population, as sugar wasn't available in Europe at this time. Instead, they were worn due to milling methods used to make flour leaving sand which in turn wore down the teeth.

The assessment of skeletal remains is very subjective, as this comment on the teeth wear shows, so even if you know the correct methods you might still be wrong, and if sexing you only have a 50/50 chance of getting it right!

Katharine Foxton

Bradford University Placement Student

To Coin a Phrase

A Royal Imperial gold aureus of the emperor Allectus, on display at the Roman Baths Museum. This is a good example of a coin in excellent condition.

The Roman Baths Museum has an enormous collection of Roman coinage, primarily recovered from the Sacred Spring. Visitors in Roman times threw coins into the water as offerings to the Goddess, just as we today throw pennies into wells for luck.

As with modern coins, there were denominations of Roman coins, which were worth different amounts and made out of different materials. These are shown here in decreasing value:

Metal: Coin: Value:

Gold Aureus 25 denarii

Gold Quinarius 12 ½ denarii

Silver Denarius 16 asses

Silver Quinarius 8 asses

Orichalcum Sestertius 4 asses

Orichalcum Dupondius 2 asses

Copper As 4 quadrantes

Orichalcum Semis 2 quadrantes

Copper Quadrans ¼ as

The nature of the metal is also important for identification. The silver content of a denarius or quinarius can help with dating - the first silver coins were often 95% pure! This standard was dropped, raised, and then dropped again until in 270 it contained a mere 1% silver. The coins made from orichalcum are what we know today as brass, being made from a particular alloy of zinc and copper. This helped to distinguish similar coins through a difference in colour. The dupondius and as were about the same size, but could be told apart because orichalcum is very yellow in colour, and copper is obviously red.

Size, weight and thickness are three other factors that are very useful when identifying Roman coins. In general, the size of Roman coins decreased over time, from the hefty bronze examples of over 25mm across and more than 3mm in thickness, through to the tiny nondescript issues from the period between 260 and 402. This can provide an indication of the coin’s date at a glance, particularly when confronted by a large selection of unidentified coins.

Inscriptions and images are essential in identifying coins. Roman coins were decorated on both sides, usually with the emperor on the front (obverse). The reverse types are varied, but commonly show depictions of various deities, victories, architecture, animals, or representations of the emperor’s family. The front of the coin will generally bear an inscription showing the emperor’s titles and dignitaries, whereas the reverse is dependant on what is depicted, with the inscription being relevant to the goddess shown, for example. The reverse of the coin sometimes bears inscriptions with information about the coin itself. This includes the letters S.C., found on the backs of copper and orichalcum coins after 23 B.C. This stands for ‘Senatus Consulto’ to show that the coin has been issued by the Senate. When mint-marks appear, they are also usually imprinted on the reverse. These were introduced in order to control and standardise the activities of mints.

When coins are very worn or damaged they can be impossible to identify. This coin shows the state in which the majority of coins are found, although this one is a particularly extreme example.

References:

Richard Reece & Simon James 1986. Identifying Roman Coins. London, Seaby Ltd.

David R. Sear 1974. Roman Coins and their Values 2nd edn. London, Seaby Ltd.




Zosha - Roman Baths Intern

Speed Dating with Pottery

Pottery Fragment: So have you ever dated pottery before?

Me: No. But I’ve dated clay pipes. I imagine it’s much the same. Clay is clay.

PF: No way. Pottery is way more exciting than pipes! Everybody likes pottery. Men, women, kids, even your grandma. Trust me. Pottery fragments are where it’s at.

Me: Are you an archaeologist by chance?

PF: Me? No. I’m really more into cooking. I should really make dinner for you sometime.

Me: Oh. No Thanks. You’re a bit too old for me. I was really looking form something more post medieval.


I knew it from the start. It was Roman pottery. Samian to be precise. I could have avoided that whole conversation.

By now you know the drill. You’re an experienced speed dater. You’ve been dating glass bottles and clay pipes. Now it’s time for the big leagues: Pottery Fragments.

Exterior

Interior

Bonus Round

Here’s a handy flow chart and some pictures of pottery fragments for you to try and date. Post your answers in the comments.

Good Luck!
 
 
Joanna

Speed Dating with Clay Pipes

Clay Pipe: So what do you spend most of your time doing?

Me: Um. I like hanging out at museums. You?

CP: I like smoking.

Me: Really? Do you smoke a lot?

CP: Yeah. All the time. Well, actually just once. Once is all you need really. Most clay pipes just do it once.

Me: Oh I see...


Just once? Could be.

Clay pipes were cheap and mass produced. People bought them, used them a threw them away.

The shape of the bowls and stems changed a bit over the years making it possible to date them. If you’re lucky you’ll find a maker’s mark on the stem or foot which will make your life infinitely easier. If you have a maker’s mark you just need to look up when that producer was in business.

However, if you’ve just got unmarked stems and bowls you’re better off using this chart. It won’t give you precise dates (it takes an expert for that) but it will help you narrow it down.

 

Try your hand at dating the pipes in the picture and post your answers in the comments.

 
Joanna

Speed Dating with Glass Bottles

Me: May I ask how old you are?

Glass Bottle: No, but you can try and guess.

Me: Alright, let me see. Hmm... Judging from the slenderness of your neck I’d say you last partied with Major Davis. Am I right?

GB: Ha ha. Trying to flatter me, are you? Try again.

Me: Hmmm. On second thought that base looks more like it belongs in John Wood’s company.

GB: You’re getting closer...


I’m sure your mother told you never to judge a book by its cover because first impressions can be misleading but speed dating is all about snap judgements.

Certain shapes were popular during certain eras making it fairly simple to date the bottle if you have the right pieces. Obviously dating complete bottles is the easiest but you can still get some good information from bits and pieces. That is, if you have the right pieces. Rims, bases and necks are usually pretty distinct and can be dated.

Here at the Roman Baths we use these simple charts to do a preliminary sort for our bottles. Once we’ve got it narrowed down we bring out the books to refine our identification.

 Why don’t you try your hand at dating some glass bottles. Post your guess in the comments.

By the way... John Wood and Major Davis were architects in the Georgian and Victorian periods respectively.

 
Joanna