By Jove: It’s the Roman Gods!

How much do you know about the Roman religion? The Romans worshipped many gods, and they were part of their lives every single day. It seems that the Roman gods are everywhere and on everything at times. Coins, pottery, figurines, and more constantly depict the gods in all of their glory. However, there are more to the gods than we realise.

Roman Religion handling table at the Roman Baths

Who are the major gods?

 The major gods are the most well-known and powerful gods. These include Juno, Apollo, and Vulcan, and objects from the collection can show us how multi-dimensional these gods were. For example, there are two different coins with Venus on them. One of them shows Venus standing with an apple, which is one of her common symbols that represents love. The other coin shows Venus Victory, depicted in armour and holding a sceptre and a helmet. Here, we see Venus as a warrior instead of her as a goddess of love. It is helpful to see the gods as complex beings who represent more than one idea.

Venus with an apple (l)  and Venus Victory (r)

Which gods were worshipped at the Roman Baths?

Sulis Minerva is the main goddess worshipped at the Roman Baths, but she is not the only one. Others worshipped here include Diana, Jupiter, Mercury, and Mars. Jupiter is on an altar in the Temple Courtyard, and we can also see him on coins and pottery. On a coin, Jupiter is seated holding Winged Victory and, on a piece of pottery, his arm is flexed to throw his thunderbolt. Even though this site is dedicated to Sulis Minerva, it does not mean that we cannot see other gods represented at this same location.

Jupiter holding Winged Victory (l) and Jupiter’s hand on thunderbolt from the altar in the Temple Courtyard (r)

Who are the minor gods?

The minor gods are not as well known by the general public and are personifications of virtues that the Romans promoted and tried to follow. One coin that shows this depicts Libertas, goddess of liberty. On the reverse of the coin, we see Libertas holding a soft pileus (a hat that freed slaves wore) and a sceptre. The pileus on the coin symbolises freedom for freed slaves which was a common virtue to put on a coin. Libertas is one of many smaller gods who represent Roman virtues.

Libertas holding pileus and sceptre

Take a look at your money today! Do you see symbols or themes represented on your coins?

 

Samantha Kestler

Collections Placement (MA Museum Studies)

Stone Age Toolbox

Prehistoric tools are fascinating! The technology to make them is so old, yet we can still recreate them today. 

‘Stone Age Toolbox’ handling table, August 2023

The oldest man-made object in the Roman Baths collection is a Palaeolithic hand axe made of chert (a type of rock). A hand axe is a hand-held stone tool used for digging, chopping, scraping, piercing, and hammering. These axes are the longest used tool in human history, used throughout the Palaeolithic period (1,000,000 to 12,000 years ago) and most likely into the Mesolithic period (12,000 to 6,000 years ago).

Replica of a Palaeolithic hand axe

This hand axe, found near Bath, dates from 500,000 – 250,000 years ago! It was made by Homo Heidelbergensis, a species of early human who no longer exists, and yet it still fits comfortably in the palm of your hand. This physical connection to early humans is what makes the Prehistoric period so interesting.

During the Neolithic period (6,000 to 4,200 years ago), handles were added to axe heads, as they start to be used to cut down trees to create fields. This was the start of crop farming, a new idea which spread from the continent.

Axe head with handle

Axes continued to be used to cut down trees for the rest of the Prehistoric period however the format of the handles changed drastically during the Bronze Age (4,600 to 2,700 years ago). This was to compensate for the new methods of construction of axes; they were being cast in bronze in two-part moulds, creating the distinctive ridge around the axe head.

Bronze Age socketed axe head

Flint was used to create tools during the Prehistoric period. Large pieces were used as axes and smaller pieces used to make tools. This was done in a process called flint knapping, where the hammerstone (a rock) is hit against a core (piece of flint) to create the desired shape. This is continued until a tool has been created that is comfortable to hold. To create the sharp cutting edge, the flint knapper chips away at the tool with smaller, softer items, such as bone, which is more precise than the first attempt.

Flintknapping, drawing by José-Manuel Benito Álvarez

Palaeolithic burins and flint blades were made from the flint chips created during flint knapping. Burins are small pieces of flint with sharpened edges, usually in the shape of a circle. They were used to create leather by scraping the skin, then to make clothing by piercing holes into the leather and sewing it together with grasses. Flint blades were used to cut soft materials such as food, animal skin, plants, or twigs.

Palaeolithic burin

During the Mesolithic and into the Neolithic period, microliths and arrowheads start to be used. Microliths are small flint shards, usually attached to a handle.

Mesolithic microliths

Prehistory is about so much more than just weapons and fighting. Most of the objects in the collection are tools for the creation of food or resources, for example arrowheads used for hunting animals.

Jen

Placement student

 

Edited by Eleanor, Collections Assistant

What Can We Learn From Animal Bones?

Animal bones found at archaeological excavations can provide valuable information about the past. They can tell us about butchery and eating habits, tool use, and the environment the bones were disposed of or buried in.

First, we must identify which animal the bones belong to. We can look at the overall size and robusticity of the bones, as well as the cranium (skull) and the mandible (jaw). The size, curvature, and profile of the mandible display distinct differences between animals. Sheep mandibles flare at the curve of the jaw, which differs from the more sloping profile of pig mandibles.

Pigs have one of the most distinctive teeth of domestic mammals. As omnivores, their teeth need to be able to both slice and grind their food, and so they display more pronounced canines and incisors compared to herbivores. Their teeth have flat shaped cusps ideal for their diet, this contrasts with the “W” shaped profile of sheep teeth, deer and cattle.

Sheep mandible (left), pig mandible (right)

Once the bone has been identified, we can examine the texture for signs of use by humans. Looking at the long bones for marks and scrapes can indicate intentional defleshing and butchery.

Differences in butchery methods and skill can lead to differences in cut marks, and it can sometimes be difficult to identify signs of intentional butchery. The clearest way to do so is by observing a V-shaped cross section. This V shape is characteristic of cutting with a lithic or metal knife, whereas a U-shaped mark indicates stone tools were used. 

Sheep tibia with cut marks (left), split cow radius (right)

Worked bone is also common, and indicates bone was also used to make tools, decorations and jewellery. Bone can be polished and incised with a decorative pattern.

This worked Roman sheep metapodia that was used as a handle for a blade or utensil

The colour and condition of the bones can also reveal information about the environment the remains were discarded or buried in, as well as actions of other animals.

When bones are discarded there is often still meat on the bone, and this can attract rodents which leave distinct parallel grooves and scrapes.  

A bright white bone indicates it was bleached by sunlight, whereas black and dark brown suggest exposure to bacteria, fungi and soil minerals. Green marks indicate contact with copper; this is a frequent occurrence in human remains due to grave goods. By noting these observations, we can construct a profile of the animal's environment.

Overall, there is much to be learned from animal bones in the archaeological context!

Lauren

Collections placement student

 

 

Spa Treatments in Bath

For over 2000 years, people have been drawn to the waters here in Bath. They have bathed, sought healing, worshipped, and socialised in the only natural hot springs in the country. There have been numerous spa sites in Bath since the Roman period and, in the 1800s, it was a thriving spa town. The current free display in the King’s Lounge focuses on the Victorian bathing establishment.

“If they can’t be cured by drinking and bathing here, they will never be cured anywhere” Dr Oliver, A Practical Dissertation on the Bath Waters, 1707

Map of Bath (1959) showing Victorian spa sites.

This consisted of three sites:

• the redeveloped Hot Bath, known as Old Royal Baths (1829) which included Bath’s first spa swimming bath, the Beau Street Swimming Bath
• the New Royal Baths and Physical Treatment Centre, which opened as a luxurious treatment centre in 1870
• the New Queen’s Baths, next to the King’s Bath, which showcased fashionable treatments from 1889.

The Stall Street entrance to the Roman Baths
with a sign for the King’s and Queens Baths.

These centres and their spa treatments remained popular through to the 20^th century.

With the Physical Treatment Centre, new and fashionable treatments were made available, inspired by spa towns on the continent. Much of the spa equipment was custom made, and included variants on the Needle Douche, the Plombières Douche, and a sulphur bath. The Vichy Needle Douche was named after the prestigious spa town in Vichy, France. A lifting mechanism was custom made for the Hot Bath, slings or chairs lifted patients in and out of the water.

Electricity was used in conjunction with mineral water,
including the Hydro-Electric Four-cell Bath, in which
patients’ limbs were placed in four separate tubs, allowing the
controlled current to pass in any direction.

The water was celebrated for its healing properties, some believed this to be due to the presence of radium, now known to be a toxic gas. This was seen in treatments such as Radium Inhalatorium, in which radium was inhaled through the nose or mouth, or, when used with mineral water, as a nasal or throat spray. Although the water was proudly advertised as radioactive, in reality radium is only present in minute quantities.

During World War One, thousands of wounded soldiers were sent to Bath to recover. They received treatments at the Mineral Water Hospital and the New Royal Baths were enlarged in 1915 to provide facilities specifically designed for them.

After the Second World War, the baths’ popularity began to decline. Leisure travel and spa therapy were no longer fashionable, and the city’s infrastructure had been damaged during the Bath Blitz. The New Queen’s Bath was demolished in 1970 and the Physical Treatment Centre closed in 1976, following the withdrawal of NHS funding established in 1948.

Temporary display in the King's Lounge.

The objects displayed in the King’s Lounge were removed prior to work on the new Thermae Spa which opened in 2003. They include a hook and handle from the lifting mechanism used to lower patients into the Hot Bath, a pressure gauge from a Vichy Douche, a thermometer which hung in the Hot Bath, and a pamphlet which details treatments and their prices in April 1923.

You can see the display for free by accessing the Stall Street entrance during opening hours between 10am-5pm.

Eleanor 

Collections Assistant 

Pottery Party!

Did you know that we don't just have Roman objects in our collection? We have a wide array of objects, from sedan chairs, stone coffins and even mammoth teeth. But perhaps one of the most important finds we have is pottery. Pottery is a great tool for archaeologists as it gives an approximate time period for their excavation. But how do we know this? To figure it out, we employ the help of our trusty pottery flow chart.

The aim of this pottery game is to follow the questions on the flow chart to work out which time period your piece is from. If you are unsure about what a word means, scroll to the bottom of this article for our 'fun pottery words'. Let’s have a go together with this piece of pottery:

 

Do you think it is coated?

 

Coating is a shiny glaze which is put on the pottery for either decorative or waterproofing purposes - sometimes both! This sherd does have coating, as you can see the shiny green colour. Great! You answered the first question! Follow the flow chart to see where you end up next...

 

Is it coated only on the inside, only on the outside, or all over?

 

This piece is coated all over, as you can see the shiny green colour everywhere. It even has some lovely decorative addition on one side, with a motif that suggests nature and perhaps a recurring pattern. This takes us down to either Late Georgian period or the Victorian period. Congratulations! You narrowed it down to a much smaller time period. This piece is Victorian, and we can tell because of the fantastic colour and the decoration style.

 

Its intense green colour and the decoration tells us it is part of a 'Majolica' ware - a type of brightly coloured serving platter or plate that had recurring motifs with foliage or nature imagery on the top side. It would have been quite common in Victorian England.  You can see that this is a rim piece, showing a beautiful amount of detail in the patterning. 

This sherd came from an excavation in the Lower Borough Walls in Bath. Historically, the majolica ware's glaze was made from tin oxide which gave it the fantastically bright colour. Modern day majolica is still made today, but the tin has been replaced with something safer.

 

These are the kind of questions we ask ourselves as curators, archaeologists, and specialists to figure out the approximate time period of a pottery fragment, and now you've done it too. Consider yourself a pottery expert!

 

Fun Pottery Words

 

Ceramic or pottery – Pots, plates, cups and more that have been made from clay and heated to harden into a permanent shape.

 

Glaze – a glassy, shiny coating on the pottery used for both decoration and for protection, for example to make it waterproof.

 

Slip – a mixture normally made from clay and water that is put on the pottery before firing it. This slip can be colourful and decorative, and pottery with decorative slip is called ‘slipware’.

 

Kiln – a special oven made for firing pottery.

 

Firing – the process of putting the pottery in a kiln or fire at a high heat to harden the clay and make the pot usable. The exact process is different depending on what type of clay you are using, and what type of pottery you are making.

 

Handmade pottery – this is the oldest pottery technique. Handmade pottery involves shaping the pottery with your hands, such as pushing the clay into a curve with your fingers.

 

Wheel made or wheel thrown pottery – pottery that has been made on a spinning wheel to make it round. The spinning wheel has a flat, spinning surface that you can shape the pot on. This can also be called wheel thrown pottery, as you ‘throw’ the clay on the spinning wheel. Wheel made pottery is easier and quicker to make than handmade pottery.

Georgie

Collections placement student

Heads or Tales: Septimius Severus

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Septimius Severus’ reign.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Born in Leptis Magna, modern day Libya, Septimius Severus was the first African-born Roman emperor. His predecessor, Pertinax, was murdered by the Praetorian Guard. Following his proclamation as emperor, Severus declared himself as the avenger of Pertinax and marched on Rome. During his reign, Severus debased the Roman currency by decreasing the silver purity of the denarius. This was the largest act of debasement since Nero and compromised the long-term strength of the economy. His reign was also characterised by military campaigns in both Parthia and Britain.

Severus’ British campaign began in 208 CE and was sparked by an increase of raids and attacks on Roman Britain by the Caledonians, largely due to Hadrian’s Wall being unmanned. During the campaign, he quickly reached the Antonine Wall but was not able to fully subjugate Caledonia. Eventually, his campaign was cut short when he fell ill and he withdrew to Eboracum, modern day York, where he died. Following his death, the Romans never campaigned into Caledonia again, and the Roman frontier was permanently withdrawn to Hadrian’s wall.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, obverse 

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Septimius Severus facing right, with a wreath of laurels on his head known as a laureate crown.

Inscription: 

Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus Imperator III

This is his regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter.

Denarius of Septimius Severus, reverse

Reverse:

The back of the coin depicts Jupiter, seated and facing left, holding a sceptre in one hand and a small Victory in the other one. Severus presents his victories, such as those in Parthia, as having been divinely ordained by Jupiter. 

Inscription:

Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate II, Consul III, Pater Patriae.

Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is followed by the number two, which indicates which term as Tribune the emperor was serving. Consul was the highest office under the Republic; during the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Severus’ third time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”.

Thanks for reading our final blog in this series, we hope you’ve enjoyed it and have been able to make #headsortales of some of them!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant

Heads or Tales: Hadrian

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Hadrian’s reign.

As of Hadrian, obverse (l) and reverse (r)
 

At the beginning of Hadrian’s reign, there was rebellion and unrest in Roman Britain. In 122 CE, construction for a defensive wall began, known as Hadrian’s Wall. It ran across the width of the island from Tyne and Wear in the east to Cumbria in the west. This ended the previous policy of imperial expansion, as Hadrian chose to focus on defending existing borders such as in Britain instead.

As of Hadrian, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin shows Hadrian, facing right with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown. He has a beard and was the first emperor since Nero to be shown with one.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus,

This was his regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter.

As of Hadrian, reverse

Reverse:

The back of the coin depicts Fortuna Redux, a form of the goddess Fortuna, holding a rudder and cornucopia. The cornucopia represents abundance, and Fortune helps to steer the course of events with the rudder. Fortuna Redux specifically oversaw a return from a long and perilous journey, as highlighted by the rudder.

Inscription:

Pontifex Maximus, Tribunica Potestate, Consul III, S.C., Fortuna Redux.

Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is often followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but that is not present on this coin. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Hadrian’s third time as consul. S.C. means Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issued under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Heads or Tales: Trajan

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Trajan’s reign.

Denarius of Trajan, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

During Trajan’s reign the Roman Empire was at its territorial height, and this period is remembered for the Empire’s extensive territorial expansion. His earliest conquests were the wars against Dacia, modern day Romania and its neighbouring countries. The first war (101-102 CE) resulted in Dacia becoming a client kingdom. The second war (105-106 CE) led to the destruction of the Dacian capital and the conquering of the region. Following the Dacian wars, Trajan then invaded the Parthian Empire to the east. He is also known for his extensive public building programmes, including Trajan’s Forum, Trajan’s Market, and Trajan’s Column, the latter of which depicts his victory in the Dacian Wars. There is very little known about Trajan’s attitude towards Britain as there is no reference to Britain in any contemporary written sources and he did not expand further into Britain.

Denarius of Trajan, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Trajan facing right, with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Optimus Augustus Germanicus Dacicus.

His regnal name was Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus, and this was used during his reign and thereafter. The term optimus, meaning “the best”, was bestowed upon Trajan by the Roman Senate due to his popularity among his peers. It appeared on coins from 105 CE onwards, so this coin dates to after that time. The title Germanicus was conferred upon him during Nerva’s reign, when he was governor of Upper Germany. He was awarded this on account of his rule of the volatile province. The title Dacicus is a victory title, reflecting Trajan’s conquest of Dacia.

Denarius of Trajan, reverse

Reverse:

On the back of the coin is Providentia, the personification of foresight. She stands, facing left, and is holding a staff, with her hand resting on a column. Her appearance is used by Trajan to publicise that he is aware of the needs of the empire and its people and is taking steps to meet them.

Inscription:

Providentia Parthicus Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate, Consul IV, Pater Patriae, SPQR.

Like with the titles Germanicus and Dacicus, Parthicus reflects Trajan’s Parthian campaign. Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest and it was the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, a role representing the common people in government. It is often followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but not on this coin. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Trajan’s fourth time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”. SPQR stands for the Senate and the Roman People and is a phrase commonly associated with Trajan and the Roman Empire. This emphasises that his authority comes from the Senate and the People, rather than his adoption by his predecessor Nerva.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant 

 

Heads or Tales: Nerva

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Nerva’s reign.

Dupondius of Nerva, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Following the assassination of Domitian in 96 CE, Nerva was proclaimed emperor by the Senate. His reign was welcomed by senators, who had previously been persecuted under Domitian’s rule. Nerva openly promised that no senators would be executed during his reign. He also ended trials for crimes of treason, released those imprisoned for treason, and granted amnesty to those who were exiled. When he died, he was the last emperor to be interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus.

Dupondius of Nerva, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Nerva facing right facing right and wearing a crown of spikes known as a radiate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Nerva Caesar Augustus Pontifex Maximus, Tribunicia Potestate, Consul… Pater Patriae.

The first four names refer to Nerva’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. Pontifex Maximus refers to the Republican role of chief high priest, the most important position in Roman religion. It became an imperial title and served as a reference to the religious aspect of the imperial duties. This is followed by “tribune of the people”, a role representing the common people in government. It is sometimes followed by a number to indicate which term as tribune the emperor was serving, but not here. Consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted. Usually, a number follows to indicate how many times the emperor had been consul and thus when the coin was minted but is illegible here. The final phrase translates to “father of his country”. 

Dupondius of Nerva, reverse

Reverse:

The back shows Libertas, the personification of liberty, standing and holding a pileus and a vertical sceptre in each hand. The pileus is a soft woven wool cap which was often used as a symbol of freedom. They were sometimes worn by newly freed enslaved people to reflect their newfound liberty, old men, and the sick. The sceptre is a sign of divinity and associated with Jupiter, and later served to demonstrate imperial power. The reference to the imperial ideal of liberty contrasts Nerva’s reign with that of his predecessor Domitian.

Inscription:

Libertas Publica S.C.

This translates to “public freedom”. S.C. stands for Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor

Collections Assistant 

Heads or Tales: Domitian

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common of these offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman province. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Domitian’s reign.

Dupondius of Domitian, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Domitian, alongside Agricola, his governor of Britain, attempted to expand the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia (modern day Scotland) during his reign. Eventually, he recalled Agricola to Rome in 85 CE. In 87 and 88 CE, following a war with the Kingdom of Dacia (modern day Romania), Domitian ordered a withdrawal of troops from Caledonian forts. During his reign, he dramatically revalued the Roman currency by increasing the silver purity of the denarius.

Dupondius of Domitian, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Domitian, facing right and wearing a crown of spikes known as a radiate crown.

Inscription:

Imperator Caesar Domitian Augustus Germanicus Consul XIII Censor Perpetuus Pater Patriae.

The first four names refer to Domitian’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. The title Germanicus was given to Domitian after his campaign against the Chatti, a Germanic tribe, in 83 CE. The consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Domitian’s eighth time as consul. Censor Perpetuus refers to Domitian’s title of “perpetual censor”, a Republican office which was originally held for five years. The censor was a magistrate responsible for regulating public morality and maintaining the census; his power was absolute. Successive emperors did not assume this title.

Dupondius of Domitian, reverse

Reverse:

On the back is Fortuna, the goddess of good fortune, facing left. She holds a cornucopia and rudder. With good fortune comes abundance, as represented by the cornucopia, and Fortuna also helps to steer future events with the rudder. Through Fortuna, Domitian presents himself and his reign as a period of abundance and good fortune.

Inscription:

Fortuna Augusti S.C.

Fortuna Augusti refers to Fortuna herself.

S.C.

This means Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor 

Collections Assistant 

Heads or Tales: Vespasian

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman occupation. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Vespasian’s reign.

Dupondius of Vespasian, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Before he was emperor, Vespasian had a successful military career and in 43 CE he was involved in the Roman invasion of Britain. Once emperor, Vespasian restored peace and stability after a year of civil wars and short-lived emperors. Within Britain, he further increased imperial expansion through his general Agricola.

Dupondius of Vespasian, obverse

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Vespasian in profile, facing right with a wreath of laurel leaves known as a laureate crown.

Inscription:

The inscription reads Imperator Caesar Vespasian Augustus Consul VIII Pater Patriae. The first four names refer to Vespasian’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. The consul was the highest office under the Republic. During the Empire, it was held by the emperor and his family members. Romans rarely served as Consul more than twice, but the emperor could serve as many times as he wanted; this coin was minted during Vespasian’s eighth time as consul. Pater Patriae translates to “father of his country”.

Dupondius of Vespasian, reverse

Reverse:

The back shows Fides, goddess of trust and good faith, holding a cornucopia and patera. The cornucopia is a symbol of abundance and fecundity, and it shows that the emperor will provide for his people. The patera is a round, shallow dish, and was used in religious ceremonies for two reasons, either to receive the blood of sacrificial animals or to offer to the gods libations of wine. When the patera is held by a deity on a coin, it represents their divine honours.

Inscription:

Fides Publica

This is the name of the goddess.

S.C.

This means Senatus Consultus and is commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority. 

The edge of this coin is cut on one side, and it is possible this was a deliberate act of mutilation of the coin. In cutting the coin, it can no longer be used as money and so it forever remains as a gift to the goddess. Coins like this are found across the empire, especially at temples and shrines.

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor 

Collections Assistant

Heads or Tales: Nero

The hot springs at Bath were not just used for bathing by the Romans; they often threw objects into the Sacred Spring as offerings to the goddess. The most common offerings were coins, with nearly 13,000 having been recovered during excavation. These coins were deposited from the early years of the sanctuary through to the early fifth century at the end of the Roman occupation. The majority are small change, however there are a small number of silver coins and four gold coins. In today’s blog post, we are going to look at a coin produced during Nero's reign.

Dupondius of Nero, obverse (l) and reverse (r)

Nero’s reign of Britain was punctuated by the Boudican revolt of 60/61 CE. Boudica, queen of the Iceni tribe, led a rebellion against the Romans after they annexed the kingdom of her late husband, who had previously ruled as an independent ally of Rome. Her revolt resulted in the destruction of Camulodunum (modern day Colchester), and the burning of Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St Albans). The revolt led to Nero considering whether to withdraw imperial forces from Britain, but Boudica’s subsequent defeat reinstated Roman control within the province. 

Dupondius of Nero (obverse)

Obverse:

The front of the coin depicts Nero in profile, facing right and wearing a crown of spikes known as a radiate crown.

Inscription:

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Tribuncia Potestate Imperator Pater Patriae.

The first five names refer to Nero’s regnal name, used during his reign and thereafter. Tribunicia Potestate translates to tribune of the people, and it was the representative of the people in the government. It is sometimes followed by a number to indicate which term as Tribune the emperor was serving, but not here. The rest translates to “emperor” and “father of his country”.

Dupondius of Nero (reverse)

Reverse:

On the back is the Macellum Magnum, and a male figure standing at the top of the steps holding a long sceptre.

A macellum is an indoor food market, often selling meat, fish and vegetables. The complex was situated on the Caelian Hill in Rome and was built and dedicated by Nero in 59 CE. The depiction of the Macellum Magnum is important for two reasons: Firstly, it records in great detail a monumental building which is now lost to us. Secondly, coins were used by emperors to disseminate their image throughout the Empire and the depiction of the Macellum Magnum demonstrates the building’s importance to Nero and promotes his public programs.

Inscription:

MAC AVG

This stands for Maceullum Augusti, which is another name for the Maceullum Magnum. This reinforces Nero’s dynastic connection to Emperor Augustus, the first Roman Emperor.

S.C. II.

This means Senatus Consultus and is a term commonly found on the reverse of bronze coins issued before the late 3^rd century CE. Unlike gold and silver coins, which were issued under imperial authority, bronze coins were issues under the Senate’s authority. 

Stay tuned to see if you can make heads or tails out of next week's coin!

Eleanor
Collections Assistant